1 


Aa* 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

church  the  original  deed  bearing  the  unique  rental 
stipulation  that  had  been  forgotten  for  over  a  cen- 
tury. The  debt,  he  found,  had  been  paid  in  1773 
and  1774,  and  then,  with  the  Baron's  declining  for- 
tunes, had  been  neglected.  In  June,  1892,  payment 
was  resumed,  and  on  the  second  Sunday  of  each  suc- 
ceeding June  the  pretty  ceremony  has  been  conducted 
by  the  Zion  Lutheran  Church  at  Manheim.  A  red 
rose  from  the  churchyard  is  sent  to  one  of  the  Baron's 
descendants,  and  piles  of  roses  dropped  within  the 
chancel  rail  are  sent  to  the  hospitals. 

But  evil  days  befell  the  princely  Stiegel.  His  ex- 
travagant mode  of  living  began  to  tell.  The  market 
for  his  glassware  dwindled  as  hard  times  approached 
and  he  fell  more  or  less  a  victim  to  scheming  asso- 
ciates. The  clouds  of  impending  war  shadowed  all 
business  and  Stiegel  found  himself  in  a  state  of  bank- 
ruptcy. He  did  his  best  to  ward  off  the  inevitable, 
even  pawning  his  wife's  gold  watch  in  his  extremity, 
and  his  poorer  friends  rallied  to  his  support.  But  it 
was  all  in  vain,  and  on  October  15,  1774,  he  was 
cast  into  the  debtor's  prison.  The  hum  of  industry 
slackened  at  Manheim  and  Elizabeth,  and  the  once 
opulent  Baron  found  himself  mortgaged  and  penni- 
less. 

By  a  special  act  of  the  Assembly  he  was  released 

[178] 


BARON  STIEGEL  AND  HIS  GLASSWARE 

from  prison  on  Christmas  Eve,  1774.  Through  the 
sale  of  the  glass  works  and  most  of  his  real  estate, 
and  with  the  aid  of  his  friends,  he  was  able  to  raise 
sufficient  funds  to  satisfy  his  creditors.  But  his 
days  of  opulence  were  ended  and  his  costly  equipage 
sold.  Robert  Coleman,  who  had  gained  control  by 
lease  of  the  plant  at  Brickerville,  made  him  foreman 
of  Elizabeth  Furnace,  and  he  took  up  his  work  again 
courageously. 

At  first  it  was  hard  sledding,  with  all  industry 
crippled  by  the  outbreak  of  war,  but  in  1776  Stiegel 
procured  orders  for  cannon,  shot,  and  shells  for  the 
Continental  troops.  For  a  time  this  work  kept  the 
plant  running  night  and  day.  During  the  winter  at 
Valley  Forge,  Stiegel  kept  open  the  road  of  com- 
munication with  Washington's  army.  During  1777 
a  band  of  Hessians  captured  at  Trenton  (200  of 
them,  it  is  said)  were  sent  to  Stiegel  to  enable  him 
to  dig  a  canal,  a  mile  long,  to  increase  his  water 
power. 

Toward  the  end  of  1778  the  government  orders 
ceased,  and  Stiegel  again  faced  bankruptcy.  He  de- 
voted the  remnants  of  his  fortune  to  the  satisfying 
of  his  creditors,  and  then,  abandoning  all  his  dreams 
of  commercial  success,  he  established  a  modest  home 
in  the  parsonage  of  the  Lutheran  Church  at  Bricker- 

[179] 


Early  American  Craftsmen 


PAUL  REVERE 
From  the  crayon  portrait  made  by  Fevret  de  Saint- Memin  in  1804. 


Early 
American 
Craftsmen 


By 


Walter  A.  Dyer 

Author  of  "The  Lure  of  the 
Antique,''  etc. 


Being  a  Series  of  Sketches  of  the 
Lives  of  the  more  important  Per- 
sonalities in  the  Early  Development 
of  the  Industrial  Arts  in  America, 
together  with  sundry  Facts  and 
Photographs  of  Interest  and  Value 
to  the  Collector  of  Americana. 


n 


New  York 


The  Century  Compauny 

1920 


1 


Copyright,  1915,  by 
THE  CENTURY  Co 

Published,  October, 


' 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

i  THE  VOGUE  OF  AMERICANA    .    V,  ,     *,,»,>      5 

ii  SAMUEL  MC!NTIRE,  MASTER  CARPENTER     .     .     16 

in  THE  EXQUISITE  FURNITURE  OF  DUNCAN  PHYFE    43 

iv  AMERICAN  WINDSOR  CHAIRS    .     .     .     .     V     .     70 

v  THE  CLOCKMAKERS  OF  CONNECTICUT     .     .     .   104 

VI   THE  WlLLARDS  AND  THEIR  CLOCKS    .       > "     .       .133 

vn  BARON  STIEGEL  AND  His  GLASSWARE      .     .     .162 

vm  THE  VERSATILE  PAUL  REVERE     .     .     .     ,     .191 

ix  OTHER  AMERICAN  SILVERSMITHS  .     .     .  .....••    .  219 

x  AMERICAN  PEWTERERS  AND  BRASIERS      .     .     .252 
xi  EARLY  AMERICAN  POTTERS       .     .     .     .     >.  ,  .  273 

XH  THE  POTTERS  OF  BENNINGTON     .     .     .     »     .  298 
xin  AMERICAN  FURNITURE  MAKERS    .     *  •  ;     .   .  .  320 

xiv  OTHER  CRAFTS  AND  CRAFTSMEN 348 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 381 

INDEX 385 


rr  A 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

is  here  rendered  to  the  many  friends  and  acquaintances  who 
assisted  me  in  the  gathering  of  this  material,  to  the  authors 
of  the  various  works  consulted,  and  to  the  publishers  of  the 
magazines  in  which  some  of  these  chapters  first  appeared. 
Chapters  II,  III,  V,  and  VII  were  published  in  The  House 
Beautiful;  Chapters  IV  and  VI  and  portions  of  others  were 
published  in  Country  Life  in  America;  and  part  of  Chapter 
XIII  in  Good  Furniture. 

W.  A.  D. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PACK 

PAUL  REVERE     From  the  crayon  portrait  made  by  Fevret 

de  Saint-Memin  in  1804 Frontispiece 

The  new  way  of  displaying  museum  collections  is  not  behind 
glass  doors  but  in  a  reconstructed  environment.  Lower 
hall  of  the  Colonial  house  containing  the  Pendleton  Col- 
lection, Providence,  R.  1 4 

A  corner  in  one  of  the  rooms  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art,  New  York,  containing  the  Bolles  Collection  and 
other  Americana 9 

The  old  Assembly  House,  Salem,  Mass.,  built  in  1782,  is 
fairly  typical  of  the  style  of  architecture  employed  by 
Samuel  Mclntire 17 

Hall  in  the  Nichols  House,  Salem,  designed  by  Mclntire. 
The  picture  includes  the  original  carved  gate-posts  as 
well  as  a  bit  of  fine  woodwork 24 

Coat-of-arms  of  Massachusetts,  designed  and  carved  in  wood 

by   Mclntire.    Now   in    the   Essex   Institute,    Salem     .      .     28 

Mclntire's    stairways    and    banisters    are    always    interesting. 

Nichols    house 28 

Pediment  from  the  old  Custom  House,  Salem,  carved  by  Mcln- 
tire in  1805  and  now  owned  by  the  Essex  Institute  .  .  33 

The  famous  Washington  medallion  that  once  adorned  the 
Mclntire  archway,  Washington  Square,  Salem  ...  33 

Bust  of  Governor  Winthrop  carved  in  wood  by  Samuel 
Mclntire  for  Rev.  William  Bentley  in  1798  and  now 
owned  by  the  American  Antiquarian  Society  ....  37 

Eight-legged   sofa   of   the   Sheraton  type,   by   Duncan   Phyfe. 

Owned  by  R.  T.   Haines  Halsey,  Esq.,  New  York     .      .     42 

The  long,  three-support  extension  table  in  the  Metropolitan 

Museum  of  Art,   New  York 42 

Phyfe  sofa  with  cornucopia  legs  and  lyre  arms.  Halsey  Col- 
lection   42 

vii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Phyfc  extension  table  with  two  four-pillar  supports,  showing 

the  fine  acanthus-leaf  carving.  Halsey  Collection  .  .  47 

Folding  card  table  with  octagonal  top  and  crossed  lyre  sup- 
port. Halsey  Collection 47 

Phyfe  music  rack,  Empire  period.  Owned  by  Mrs.  Dwight 
M.  Prouty,  Boston 54 

Phyfe  stand,  showing  a  favorite  form  of  table  top.  Halsey 

Collection 54 

One  of  the  less  common  forms  of  Phyfe  chair,  with  straight 

front  legs  and  cane  seat 59 

Lyre-back  chair,  Halsey  Collection.  Similar  to  those  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum 59 

A  splendid  example  of  medallion-back  Phyfe  side  chair,  owned 

by  Mr.  Halsey 66 

Medallion-back  armchair,  showing  a  slight  tendency  toward 

the  heavier  type  of  design 66 

At  the  left,  hoop-back  armchair  with  carved  arms,  New  Jersey 
type;  center,  a  good  example  of  New  England  loop-back 
armchair;  right,  the  later  and  less  graceful  development 
of  the  same,  with  the  bamboo  style  of  turning  and  the 
arms  joined  to  the  loop,  not  of  the  same  piece.  Bolles 
Collection  . •  .  .  .  71 

An  unusually  good  pair  of  loop-back  side  chairs,  owned  by 
the  author "..*..  71 

Extension  armchairs,  Bolles  Collection.  At  the  left,  an  un- 
usually tall  hoop-back;  center,  fan-back  or  comb-back 
armchair,  with  scroll  ears,  New  Jersey  style;  right,  a 
more  graceful  form  of  the  same  with  carved  arms  .  .  78 

At  the  left,  a  hoop-back  armchair  from  Massachusetts,  with 
plain  arms,  owned  by  the  author;  right,  writing-chair  in 
the  Bolles  Collection,  like  a  low-back  Windsor  with  comb- 
back  extension 78 

At  the  left,  New  England  loop-back  armchair,  with  comb- 
back  extension,  back  braces,  and  bamboo  turning;  center, 
a  very  late  and  awkward  development  of  the  comb-back 
rocker;  right,  child's  comb-back  or  fan-back  armchair, 
New  Jersey  style.  Bolles  Collection 81 

At  the  left,  a  good  example  of  the  fan-back  side  chair,  New 
Jersey  style;  right,  fan-back  armchair,  New  Jersey  style, 

viii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

like  a  low-back  Windsor  with  fan-back  extension.    Bolles 
Collection 81 

Typical  English  Windsors  with  pierced  splats.     Compare  the 

lines  and  proportions  with  those  of  American  chairs     .      .85 

A  good  example  of  the  late  Windsor  settee  from  Pennsyl- 
vania. Owned  by  Mr.  David  B.  Missemer  ....  85 

Examples  of  late  Pennsylvania  forms,  owned  by  Mr.  D.  B. 

Missemer 92 

A  good  example  of  the  low-back  Windsor,  owned  by  Mr. 
Renwick  C.  Hurry 92 

At  the  left,  comb-back  rocker,  owned  by  Mrs.  Elizabeth  H. 
Marks;  right,  child's  hoop-back  rocker  and  Pennsylvania 
fan-back  side  chair,  owned  by  Mr.  D.  B.  Missemer  .  .  97 

Hoop-back  armchair  with  rockers  added  and  a  late  form  of 

Windsor  rocker,  owned  by  Mrs.  Elizabeth  H.  Marks    .     .     97 

Eli  Terry,  from  a  portrait  painted  between  1800  and  1810. 
To  the  right,  patent  issued  to  Eli  Terry  in  1826  and  now 
owned  by  Mr.  Dwight  H.  Terry,  Plymouth,  Conn.  .  .  102 

Clock  made  by  Daniel  Burnap  in  1799.     Now  owned  by  Miss 

Mary    W.    Andrews,    Hartford,    Conn 106 

Tall  clock  made  by  Silas  Hoadley  after  1814,  with  a  painted 

metal   dial   bearing  the  maker's  name 106 

Seth  Thomas.  From  a  steel  engraving  in  "The  History  of 
Litchfield  County." in 

Silas  Hoadley.  From  a  portrait  owned  by  Carleton  E.  Hoad- 
ley, Esq.,  New  Haven,  Conn in 

Tall  clock  made  by  Eli  Terry  in  1794.     Now  owned  by  Mr. 

A.  C.  Bunnell,  Ridley  Park,  Pa 115 

An    early   tall    clock    with    wooden    works    made    by    Terry. 

Owned  by  Mrs.  James  W.  Cook  of  Providence     .      .      .115 

Face  and  works  of  an  early  wooden  clock  by  Eli  Terry     .     .   120 

A  good  example  of  the  pillar-and-scroll-top  style  made  by 
both  Terry  and  Thomas 120 

A  later  type  of  shelf  clock  made  by  Seth  Thomas.    Owned 

by  Mr.  L.  A.  Klein,  Ridley  Park,  Pa 120 

Congregational    Church,    Terryville,    Conn.    The    clock    was 

made  by  Eli  Terry  in   1835 125 

The  original  works,  with  their  wooden  wheels,  remain  in  the 
Terryville  church  clock,  but  are  now  regulated  by  an 

electrical    connection 125 

ix 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Simon  Willard.    From  a  portrait  owned  by  the  Misses  Bird, 

Dorchester,  Mass 132 

Simon  Willard  tall  clock  owned  by  the  Butler  Hospital, 
Providence,  R.  1 137 

A  typical  example  of  Willard  tall  clock,  with  moon's  phases 
above  the  dial 137 

A    Simon    Willard    presentation    timepiece,    owned    by    Mr. 

Dwight  M.  Prouty,  Boston 144 

An  Aaron  Willard  banjo  clock  with  a  picture  of  the  Con- 

stitution-Guerriere  battle 144 

An  Aaron  Willard  shelf  clock,  forty  inches  high.     Owned  by 

Mr.  Dwight  M.  Prouty,  Boston 149 

A  unique  gravity  clock  by  Simon  Willard.  The  entire  clock 
swings  like  a  pendulum 149 

Mantel  clock  in  a  handsome  mahogany  case,  made  by  Aaron 

Willard.    Prouty   Collection    ...y     .     .     ,     .     .,     .     .     .  149 

A   typical    Simon    Willard    patent   timepiece    or    banjo    clock. 

The  eagle  on  top  is  probably  a   later   addition     .      .     .156 

The  advertisement  label  which  Simon  Willard  pasted  inside 
the  cases  of  his  tall  clocks 156 

Five  Baron  Stiegel  salt  cups  of  the  fourteen  owned  by  Mrs. 
Albert  K.  Hostetter,  Lancaster,  Pa 159 

Clear  and  tinted  pitchers  and  creamers  in  the  Hostetter  Col- 
lection   159 

Stiegel  glassware,  Metropolitan  Museum.     Examples  of  blown 

relief  decoration;   barrel  tumbler  and  salt  dish     .     .      .   163 

Stiegel  glassware  in  the  Hunter  Collection  at  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art,  New  York.  Salt  dish  and  creamer 
in  tinted  ware 170 

Cotton-stem  wine  glasses,  enameled  tumblers,  and  tinted 
sugar  bowls  in  the  Hostetter  Collection  of  Stiegel  glass- 
ware   175 

Enameled  tumblers  and  mugs.     Hostetter  Collection     .     .     .   175 

Two  tumblers  in  the  Hunter  Collection  of  Stiegel  glassware. 
A  clear-glass  tumbler,  corrugated  or  fluted  style,  with  an 
etched  festoon  border;  and  an  example  of  the  enameled 
ware — the  cockatoo  pattern 182 

A  group  of  silverware  made  by  Paul  Revere  and  exhibited  at 

the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  in  1906 185 

x 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

The  famous  Sons  of  Liberty  punch  bowl  made  by  Revere  in 
1768;  now  owned  by  Marsden  J.  Perry,  Esq.,  Providence, 
R.  I.  The  salt  cellar,  another  patriotic  Revere  piece,  is 
the  property  of  R.  T.  Haines  Halsey,  Esq.,  New  York  .  189 

A  silver  tea  set  of  extraordinary  grace  made  by  Paul  Revere 
in  1799  for  presentation  to  Edmund  Hartt,  constructor 
of  the  frigate  Boston.  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston  .  196 

Silver  sauce  pan  of  unusual  design,  by  Paul  Revere     .      .      .   196 

Part  of  the  exhibit  of  Revere  silverware  at  the  Museum  of 

Fine    Arts,    Boston,    in    1906 201 

Revere's  bookplate,  drawn  and  engraved  by  himself     .      .      .  208 

A  Revere  teapot  of  great  beauty.     Clearwater  Collection  .      .  208 

"The  Boston  Massacre,"  the  most  famous  of  Revere's  en- 
gravings   211 

"Harvard  College,"  by  Joseph  Chadwick  and  Paul  Revere     .  211 

Repousse  sugar  bowl.    An  example  of  Revere's  later  work     .  215 

A  Paul  Revere  pitcher  owned  by  Mr.  George  Francis  Dow, 

Salem,    Mass 215 

A  collection  of  silver  porringers  from  the  Boston  exhibit, 
arranged  in  chronological  order.  The  makers  are  Dum- 
mer,  Cony,  Edwards,  Cowell,  Dixwell,  John  Burt,  Hurd, 
Samuel  Burt,  Revere,  and  Swan 221 

Communion  cups  owned  by  the  Congregational  Church  at 
Stratford,  Conn.  The  six  caudle  cups  are  by  Cony,  Noyes, 
and  Cowell,  the  two  beakers  by  Hurd,  and  the  chalice 
by  Dummer 225 

Baptismal  basin  by  Kneeland  (Boston,  about  1735)  ;  caudle 
cups  by  Dummer  and  Dixwell.  Owned  by  the  Center 
Congregational  Church,  New  Haven,  Conn 225 

Alms  basin  by  Revere,  flagons  by  the  Burts,  beakers  by  Hull, 
Dummer  and  others.  Owned  by  the  First  Church  of 
Christ,  Marblehead,  Mass 225 

A  remarkable  teapot  in  the  Clearwater  Collection.  Prob- 
ably made  by  Daniel  Rogers  in  Newport  about  1750  .  .  229 

Old    silver    beaker    from    New    York,    Dutch    type,    maker 

unknown;  and  communion  beakers  by  Dummer  and  Hull  .  229 

Mugs  or  cans  by  Andrew  Tyler  of  Boston  and  Caesar  Griselm 

of    Philadelphia.     Clearwater    Collection 236 

xi 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Loving  cup  by  R.  Swan  and  a  plain  silver  tankard  made  by 

Cary  Dunn  about  1780 236 

A  teapot  by  Cony  and  a  coffee  pot  by  Winslow.    From  the 

Clearwater  Collection 239 

Coffee  pots  by  John  Cony  and  Pygan  Adams 239 

Brazier   by   Edward   Winslow 243 

A   rare  piece  of   silverware — two-lined  fork  by  John   Noyes, 

first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 243 

A  brazier  made  by  Jacob  Kurd  of  Boston,  showing  exquisite 

workmanship.    Clearwater   Collection 243 

Silver  porringer  made  by  Samuel  Vernon  of  Newport,  about 

1725.    Truax    Collection 250 

Silver    sweetmeat    box    made    by    Winslow    in     1702.    Now 

owned  by  Mr.  George  S.  Palmer,  New  London,  Conn.     .  250 
Ladle,  dish,  and  sauce  boat  in  the  Bolles  Collection  of  Amer- 
ican pewter  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum 253 

Pewter  plates  in  the  Bolles  Collection 253 

American   pewter   jugs.    Bolles   Collection     .     .     .     .     .     .  257 

Pewter    beakers.    Bolles    Collection 257 

Jugs    or    flagons.    Bolles    Collection 257 

Pepper  shakers  of  American  pewter.  Bolles  Collection  .  .  264 
Five  pewter  porringers  and  a  strainer.  Bolles  Collection  .  264 
Early  trefid  spoon  and  five  later  ones.  Bolles  Collection  .  269 

American  pewter  lamps.    Bolles  Collection 269 

Eighteenth    century    pewter    cider    jug    and    whale-oil    lamp. 

Bolles     Collection        276 

Two   Pennsylvania   German   sgraffito   plates  made   by   David 

Spinner  in   1801.     Metropolitan  Museum  Collection     .      .  281 
Pennsylvania    German    red    clay    slip-decorated    ware,    dated 
1788,  and  bearing  the  peacock  motif  that  was  the  favorite 
of   Georg  Hiibener.     It  is  a  meat  or  vegetable  dish,   14 
inches    in    diameter,    and    a    rare    specimen.    Owned    by 

Mr.  Renwick  C.  Hurry 281 

Two  sgraffito  plates  with  the  popular  tulip  motif,  dated  1810 

and    1818,    Metropolitan    Museum    Collection     ....  288 
Porcelain  vases,  Sevres  style,  probably  made  at  the  American 
China  Manufactory  in  Philadelphia  about  1833 — the  first 

American  porcelain.     Hurry  Collection 288 

Christopher  Webber  Fenton 291 

xii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Alanson   Lyman 291 

A  group  of  Bennington  pottery  in  the  Pitkin  Collection  at  the 
Hartford  Athenaeum,  showing  Rockingham  and  parian 
ware,  figures  and  pitchers.  Here  are  the  poodles,  cow 
creamers,  a  toby,  the  exquisite  figure  in  parian  of  the 
girl  tying  her  shoe,  and  the  famous  hound-handled 
pitcher 295 

Four  of  the  types  of  Bennington  pitchers  from  the  collection 
of  Mr.  William  A.  Cahill,  Hoosick  Falls,  N.  Y.  From 
left  to  right  they  are  the  branch-handled  pitcher,  a  plain 
pattern  in  scroddled  ware,  the  tulip  pattern,  and  Great- 
bach's  Bennington  hound-handle 302 

Hound-handled  pitchers  from  the  Jersey  City  or  Trenton  pot- 
teries, probably  designed  by  Greatbach.  Note  the  dif- 
ferences in  the  modeling  of  the  head  and  forelegs  of 
the  Bennington  hound  above 302 

The  recumbent  cow  and  two  kinds  of  tobies.  Owned  by  Mr. 

William  A.  Cahill 307 

Pudding  dish,  coffee  pot,  and  candlesticks  in  the  collection  of 

Bennington  pottery  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum  .  .  .  307 

Poodles  and  coachman  bottle  from  Mr.  CahilFs  Collection. 

The  white  poodle  is  rare  and  valuable 307 

The  Bennington  deer,  one  of  the  most  popular  figures.  From 

the  collection  of  Elihu  B.  Taft,  Esq.,  Burlington,  Vt.  .  .  314 

The  Bennington  cow  creamer.  Owned  by  Miss  Mary  H. 

Northend,  Salem,  Mass 314 

Examples  of  blue  and  white  parian  ware  made  at  Benning- 
ton. From  the  collection  of  Mr.  Charles  S.  Sherman, 
Glens  Falls,  N.  Y 317 

White  parian  owned  by  Mr.  Andrew  B.  Oatrnan,  Benning- 
ton, Vt.  The  pitcher  is  the  daisy  pattern;  the  white 
swan  is  very  rare 317 

Seventeenth-century  turned  chair  (Harvard  chair)  and  oak 
wainscot  chair 321 

At  the  left,  American  Queen  Anne  fiddle-back  chair,  Dutch 
type,  with  Spanish  feet,  about  1710-20;  right,  a  somewhat 
later  style,  with  cabriole  legs  and  ball-and-claw  feet. 
Bolles  Collection 321 

At  the  left,  Charles  II  or  Restoration  style,  with  Flemish 

xiii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


feet,  1675-1700;  center,  the  second  stage,  bannister-back 
with  Spanish  feet  and  Restoration  features;  right,  third 
stage,  with  spindles  rounded  on  the  back.  Metropolitan 
Museum  328 

At  the  left,  bannister-back  armchair  with  spindles  rounded  on 
the  back,  Metropolitan  Museum;  right,  bannister-back 
armchair  with  flat,  grooved  spindles,  about  1740-50, 
owned  by  the  author 328 

Early  slat-back  armchair  and  later  four-back  chair.  Metro- 
politan Museum 333 

At  the  left,  early  roundabout  with  solid  splats  and  Dutch  feet, 
owned  by  the  author;  right,  later  roundabout,  Chippen- 
dale style,  in  the  Bolles  Collection 333 

American-made  chairs  of  the  Chippendale  type,  1760-70     .     .339 

At  the  left,  American  chair  of  the  Sheraton  type,  about  1800; 
right,  "fancy"  chair,  early  nineteenth  century.  Metro- 
politan Museum 339 

The  oak  gate-leg  table,  of  Jacobean  origin,  was  popular  in 
England  and  the  Colonies  during  the  last  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  This  one,  a  fine  example  of  Amer- 
ican workmanship,  is  in  the  Bolles  Collection  ....  345 

An  unusual  form  of  tripod  table  with  inlaid  top;  1780-1800. 
Bolles  Collection  .  .  .  .  .  ;  ......  345 

A  not  ungraceful  table  of  the  Dutch  type,  American  manu- 
facture; 1750-75.  Bolles  Collection 345 

American  mahogany  table  with  reeded  legs,  Sheraton  style; 

about  1800.     Owned  by  Mrs.  W.  A.  Dyer 345 

Types  of  early  nineteenth-century  American  looking-glasses. 
Bolles  Collection.  The  first  two  have  gilt  frames  of  Em- 
pire type,  and  the  third  is  of  flat  mahogany  .  .  .  .352 

American  glass  cup  plates,  1830  to  1850 357 

Gen.  Taylor  flask,  Dyottville  works;  Masonic  flask  by  A.  R. 
Samuels,  and  bottle  by  S.  Huffsey;  about  1850.  Metro- 
politan Museum  Collection 357 

Eighteenth-century  iron  vessels  from  the  Bolles  Collection     .   363 

Old  Pennsylvania  stove  plates,  owned  by  Mr.  David  B.  Mis- 
semer 363 

One  form  of  the  old  Franklin  stove.    Owned  by  the  author     .  367 

xiv 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


American  iron  vessels,  eighteenth  century.  Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum   367 

An  American  hand-woven  coverlet  of  the  late  eighteenth 
century.  From  the  Metropolitan  Museum  Collection  .  371 

A  fashionable  type  of  needlework.  "Washington  Memorial" 
embroidery,  about  1800.  Holies  Collection  .  .  .  .  .  377 

American  sampler,  one  of  the  less  elaborate  forms.  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art 377 


Early  American  Craftsmen 


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ll 

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II 
I3 


Early  American   Craftsmen 


CHAPTER  I 

THE    VOGUE    OF    AMERICANA '"" 

PATRIOTISM,  when  it  leads  to  war  and  deso- 
lation, ceases,  in  my  opinion,  to  be  a  virtue ; 
but  when  it  leads  men  and  women  to  the 
revival  and  preservation  of  worthy  traditions  and 
institutions,  and  to  the  study  of  history,  of  folk 
literature  and  music  and  the  industrial  arts,  it  be- 
comes a  positive,  constructive  force  for  good  in  the 
onward  march  of  civilization. 

America  is  still  young  compared  with  Europe  and 
Asia,  but  it  is  not  so  young  that  we  are  free  from  the 
danger  of  forgetting  much  that  was  worthy  and 
memorable  in  the  lives  of  our  forefathers.  In  the 
midst  of  our  modernism  and  commercialism  we  need 
an  injection  of  that  sort  of  patriotism  and  national 

[5] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

pride  which  is  born  of  ancestor  worship  and  the  back- 
ward glance.  We  need  to  cultivate  a  finer  apprecia- 
tion of  our  historic  and  artistic  heritage. 

Among  American  collectors  and  connoisseurs,  both 
amateur  and  professional — enthusiastic  custodians  of 
a  gentle  cult — this  spirit  of  patriotism  has  of  late 
been  growing.  They  have  been  turning  their  atten- 
tion toward  Americana. 

The.rnild  mania  of  the  collector  of  antiques  is  in- 
becomes  a  quest  without  an  ultimate 
/;  One  begins  with  blue  Staffordshire 
plates  and  Hepplewhite  chairs,  passes  on  to  the 
Jacobean  walnut  and  Wedgwood  stage,  then  to 
Elizabethan  oak,  and  finally  nothing  satisfies  but 
more  or  less  fragmentary  relics  of  the  Italian,  Span- 
ish, French,  or  Flemish  Renaissance. 

But  there  is  noticeable  a  reaction  from  all  this. 
Beginning  with  the  exhibition  of  American  silver- 
ware in  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in  1906 
and  the  exhibits  of  the  Hudson-Fulton  Celebration  in 
New  York  in  1909,  there  has  been  awakened  a  new 
vogue  for  American  antiquities  of  a  hundred-odd 
years  ago.  The  field  is  not  without  distinct  interest. 
There  is  the  furniture  of  Duncan  Phyfe,  the  clocks 
of  Eli  Terry  and  Simon  Willard,  the  silverware  of 
Paul  Revere  and  his  contemporaries,  the  glassware 

[6] 


THE  VOGUE  OF  AMERICANA 

of  Baron  Stiegel,  Windsor  chairs  and  samplers,  and 
a  host  of  other  treasures  as  worthy  of  preservation  as 
the  cracked  chests  of  Tudor  England  or  the  tattered 
altar  cloths  of  Spain.  It  is  a  field  that  should  prove 
more  and  more  alluring  to  patriotic  Americans  as 
they  begin  to  appreciate  more  fully  the  true  artistic 
genius  of  their  forefathers. 

And  with  this  new  vogue  of  Americana  has  come 
an  increasing  interest  in  American  Colonial  and  Rev- 
olutionary history  and  the  establishment  of  a  more 
vivid  and  human  background  for  the  stirring  events 
of  other  days.  For  there  is  something  distinctly 
human  about  the  development  of  the  industrial  arts ; 
they  touch  life  at  so  many  points  and  so  intimately; 
and  the  students  and  collectors  of  Americana  have 
been,  unconsciously  perhaps,  reconstructing  for  us  a 
more  living  picture  of  the  men  and  manners  of  a  for- 
mer time,  and  history  is  made  thereby  a  more  vital 
thing.  The  collector  has  ceased  to  be  absorbed  en- 
tirely by  the  quest  for  a  bargain  and  has  become  a 
delver  after  human  facts. 

Happily  for  the  growth  of  this  new  interest,  the 
leading  art  museums  of  the  East  and  many  of  the 
smaller  ones  have,  during  the  past  ten  years,  been 
taking  the  matter  seriously,  and  the  private  collector 
of  Americana  is  granted  the  opportunity  of  studying 

[7] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

his  favorite  branch  under  the  most  advantageous  con- 
ditions. 

To  Edwin  Atlee  Barber,  Ph.D.,  Director  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Museum  at  Philadelphia,  we  are  in- 
debted for  most  of  what  we  know  of  the  history  of 
American  ceramics  and  glassware.  He  began  his 
studies  and  his  collecting  twenty  years  ago,  long 
before  there  was  any  special  interest  in  or  apprecia- 
tion for  Americana,  and  he  has  written  several  books 
on  American  ceramics  and  glassware  which  stand  as 
authoritative.  The  Pennsylvania  Museum  collec- 
tion in  this  field  is  the  largest  and  most  comprehen- 
sive in  existence.  There  are  something  like  one 
hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  Pennsylvania-German 
slip-decorated  ware  alone,  while  the  entire  collection 
of  American  pottery  and  porcelain,  covering  the  his- 
tory of  the  art  in  this  country  from  the  beginning, 
numbers  over  one  thousand  examples.  The  collec- 
tion of  American  glass,  comprising  about  six  hun- 
dred pieces,  is  also  the  most  representative  in  exist- 
ence, and  includes  examples  of  all  periods  beginning 
with  the  first  American  glass  works  established  at 
Jamestown,  Virginia,  in  1621. 

Another  noteworthy  collection  of  American  pot- 
tery is  the  Pitkin  collection  at  the  Wadsworth  Athe- 
naeum in  Hartford,  Connecticut.  It  includes  early 

[8] 


THE  VOGUE  OF  AMERICANA 

earthenware  from  all  of  the  New  England  States 
and  New  York,  sgraffito  and  slip-decorated  ware 
from  Pennsylvania,  Bennington  ware,  etc. 

The  pioneer  in  the  field  of  American  furniture 
was  Dr.  Irving  W.  Lyon,  author  of  "Colonial  Fur- 
niture in  New  England,"  which  was  published  in 
1891.  He  gathered  an  excellent  collection  of 
American-made  furniture  found  in  New  England, 
particularly  about  Hartford.  When  this  collection 
was  at  last  sold  a  large  part  of  it  was  acquired  by 
H.  Eugene  Bolles,  Esq.,  of  Boston,  a  contemporary 
collector  of  English  and  American  furniture  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Mr.  Bolles  also  acquired  the 
collection  of  Mr.  Albert  Hosmer,  a  Hartford  cabi- 
net-maker, and  with  these  collections  as  a  founda- 
tion he  succeeded  in  getting  together  a  splendid  rep- 
resentation of  the  work  of  early  American  furniture 
makers  before  there  was  any  great  demand  for  it. 
In  1909  the  Bolles  collection  was  purchased  by  Mrs. 
Russell  Sage  and  placed  in  the  Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum of  Art,  New  York,  where  it  is  now  on  view. 
It  is  particularly  strong  in  the  finer  American  work 
of  the  Georgian  period. 

Another  valuable  and  unique  exhibit  is  the  collec- 
tion of  Colonial  furnishings  gathered  by  Mr.  Charles 
L.  Pendleton  of  Providence  and  given  by  him  to 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

the  Rhode  Island  School  of  Design  in  1904.  Mr. 
Pendle ton's  aim  was  to  furnish  a  house  as  an  Ameri- 
can gentleman  of  taste  would  have  done  toward  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  house  contain- 
ing the  collection  was  the  gift  of  Mr.  Stephen  O. 
Metcalf  and  was  built  in  accordance  with  the  type  of 
architecture  prevalent  in  Providence  at  the  time  of 
the  Revolution.  The  collection  is  strong  in  Ameri- 
can-made furniture  and  represents  the  work  of  one 
hundred  years,  beginning  with  1690. 

The  finest  single  collection  of  old  American  sil- 
verware in  existence  is  that  gathered  by  Hon.  A.  T. 
Clearwater  of  Kingston,  New  York,  and  placed  on 
view  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New 
York.  Judge  Clearwater  began  collecting  Ameri- 
can specimens  after  visiting  the  loan  exhibit  in  the 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  in  1906,  and  built 
up  his  collection  rapidly.  At  present  there  are  four 
hundred  and  thirty  pieces  on  exhibition.  Of  these 
two  hundred  and  thirty-four  are  flatware  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  one  hundred  and  forty-three  are 
tankards,  beakers,  teapots,  porringers,  and  other 
table  utensils  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, and  fifty-three  are  specimens  of  early  nine- 
teenth century  work.  Judge  Clearwater  is  con- 

[12] 


THE  VOGUE  OF  AMERICANA 

stantly  adding  to  the  collection.  About  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century  pieces  antedate  1 750.  There  are 
specimens  of  the  work  of  John  Cony,  Edward  Wins- 
low,  John  and  Benjamin  Burt,  Andrew  Tyler,  Ben- 
jamin Wynkoop,  and  others,  and  a  large  number 
of  pieces  by  Paul  Revere. 

There  are  smaller  collections  of  Americana  at  the 
Essex  Institute  in  Salem,  the  Concord  Antiquarian 
Society,  Memorial  Hall  at  Deerfield,  and  a  num- 
ber of  other  places  that  are  well  worth  visiting,  while 
such  private  collections  as  Mr.  Frederick  W.  Hun- 
ter's Stiegel  glass,  Mr.  R.  T.  Haines  Halsey's  fur- 
niture and  silver,  and  several  others,  have  played 
an  important  part  in  the  development  of  this  new 
interest  in  Americana. 

The  Pendleton  collection  is  typical  of  the  new 
idea  in  museum  exhibits — the  authentic  reconstruc- 
tion of  an  old  environment  rather  than  the  mere 
display  of  relics.  Such  reproductions  of  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  century  interiors  as  may  be 
seen  at  Mt.  Vernon,  at  several  of  Washington's 
headquarters,  at  the  Van  Cortlandt  house  and  Jumel 
mansion  in  New  York,  Philipse  Manor  at  Yonkers, 
and  the  Ropes  house  in  Salem,  have  the  effect  of  re- 
calling the  home  atmosphere  of  other  days  and  of 

[13] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

re-forming  the  background  against  which  the  na- 
tional and  domestic  drama  of  our  forefathers  was 
enacted. 

Having  attained  this  new  vision  of  the  home 
life  of  the  Colonies,  our  collecting  takes  on  a  new 
color.  Our  piece  of  old  silver  becomes  something 
more  than  an  example  of  rare  craftsmanship;  in  our 
Windsor  chair  we  see  something  more  than  grace  of 
line.  They  become  more  personal.  The  engraved 
silver  beaker,  when  we  have  learned  where  and  when 
it  was  made  and  for  what  it  was  used,  calls  up  a  pic- 
ture of  a  little  Dutch  Reformed  Church  in  old  Man- 
hattan and  of  the  Knickerbockers  who  filled  its  pews. 
We  handle  the  piece  more  reverently,  studying  the 
workmanship  and  design,  and  presently  comes  a 
vision  of  old  Peter  Van  Dyck  himself  in  his  little 
shop,  weighing  out  the  precious  metal  or  plying  his 
graver's  tool. 

It  is  inevitable  that  the  average  person's  interest 
should  shift  from  the  craft  to  the  craftsman,  from 
the  object  of  worth  or  beauty  to  the  man  who  fash- 
ioned it.  True  connoisseurs  like  Mr.  Luke  Vincent 
Lock  wood — and  they  are  all  too  few  in  this  coun- 
try— approach  art  from  the  other  direction.  To 
them  the  craft  is  the  important  matter  and  the  crafts- 
man secondary.  But  most  of  us  must  confess  to  a 

[HI 


THE  VOGUE  OF  AMERICANA 

curiosity  in  human  lives.     We  are  interested  in  men 
more  than  in  metals. 

That  is  why  I  have  chosen  to  write  about  early 
American  craftsmen  rather  than  to  treat  Americana 
as  a  subject  for  analysis  and  classification,  for  divi- 
sion into  periods  and  for  grouping  under  heads. 
And  I  fancy  that  the  average  person,  not  seeking  to 
become  an  authority  or  an  expert,  would  learn  no 
more  about  the  growth  of  the  industrial  arts  in 
America  or  the  classification  of  their  products,  from 
such  a  scientific  treatise,  than  from  the  more  humanly 
interesting  contemplation  of  the  lives  and  work  of 
the  patriotic  Revere,  the  struggling  Phyfe,  the  flam- 
boyant Stiegel,  the  industrious  Willard.  And,  after 
all,  without  craftsmen  there  would  be  no  crafts. 


[15] 


CHAPTER  II 

SAMUEL    MC  INTIRE,    MASTER    CARPENTER 

AMONG  the  most  precious  of  our  American 
heritages  of  Colonial  and  post-Revolution- 
ary times  are  the  homes  of  our  forefathers 
that  have  been  preserved  to  us.  They  are  precious 
not  only  because  of  their  historical  associations  but 
because  in  them  still  lives  a  spirit  of  honest  and  in- 
spired craftsmanship  as  true  if  not  as  lofty  as  that 
which  entered  into  the  building  of  the  Cologne 
Cathedral  or  the  Taj  Mahal.  We  are  constantly 
harking  back  to  them  in  our  attempts  to  develop  an 
American  style  of  domestic  architecture,  because 
there  is  something  about  them  that  has  stood  the  test 
of  time — something  good  and  true  and  beautiful. 

What  manner  of  men  designed  and  builded  these 
fine  old  mansions  and  farmsteads'?  Of  Bulfinch  we 
know,  of  La  Trobe  and  Jefferson  and  a  few  others 
who  were  professional  or  amateur  architects.  But 

[16] 


McINTIRE,  MASTER  CARPENTER 

they  were  not  the  men  who  conceived  the  harmonious 
proportions  and  exquisite  details  of  the  homes  of  our 
forefathers.  The  domestic  architects  of  that  day 
were  for  the  most  part  architects  merely  as  part  of 
the  day's  work;  they  were  the  builders  and  master 
carpenters,  honest  craftsmen  all,  and  of  them  we 
know  all  too  little. 

The  master  carpenters  of  a  hundred-odd  years 
ago  combined  the  present  professions  of  architect, 
contractor,  builder,  decorator,  and  artisan.  They 
were  workmen  who  lived  with  their  tools  and  not 
in  sumptuous  city  offices.  Yet  they  honored  their 
craft  and  exalted  it.  In  Boston  the  guild  which 
met  in  Carpenter's  Hall  was  composed  of  men  of 
intellect  who  were  masters  of  their  calling.  Alas, 
their  tribe  has  well  nigh  perished. 

The  achievements  of  these  men,  especially  as 
shown  in  the  private  houses  of  New  England  and  the 
South,  constitute  our  chief  claim  to  a  national  and 
indigenous  school  of  architecture.  "For  although 
these  houses,"  as  one  writer  puts  it,  "were  modeled 
on  the  style  prevalent  at  the  time  all  over  England, 
they  show  the  common  classical  and  stereotyped 
forms  used  with  a  justness  of  proportion,  a  nicety 
of  detail,  and  a  refinement  and  grace  which  distin- 
guished them  from  all  other  buildings  of  the  period." 

[19] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

In  no  single  spot  are  more  of  these  treasures  of 
architectural  craftsmanship  to  be  found  than  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts.  Salem  was  a  prosperous  sea- 
port. Her  citizens  from  the  early  days  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  amassed  comfortable  fortunes  in  the 
fisheries  and  the  overseas  trade,  and  they  spent  their 
money  at  home,  building  houses  comparable  in  ele- 
gance and  good  taste  with  the  best  manor  houses  of 
Virginia.  The  doorways  and  interior  woodwork 
particularly — the  mantels,  paneling,  and  stairways — 
exhibit  a  remarkable  feeling  for  classic  detail  and  a 
restraint  and  care  in  workmanship  seldom  found 
elsewhere. 

This  interior  woodwork  was  almost  invariably 
made  of  white  pine  which  grew  in  abundance  along 
the  New  England  coast,  and  which  offered  an  excel- 
lent material  for  carving.  It  was  nearly  always 
well  seasoned  before  its  use  and  was  kept  protected 
by  white  paint;  as  a  result  it  has  resisted  the  effects 
of  time  to  a  remarkable  extent.  But  the  most  note- 
worthy thing  about  it  is  the  workmanship — the  skill, 
ingenuity,  and  technical  knowledge  displayed  in  its 
application  to  specific  needs. 

Unquestionably  the  skill  which  these  carpenters 
acquired  in  wood  carving  and  ornamental  work  gen- 

[20] 


McINTIRE,  MASTER  CARPENTER 

erally  was  due  largely  to  their  training  in  the  Salem 
ship-yards,  where  fine  carving  and  accurately  fitted 
and  proportioned  work  was  always  in  demand. 
They  learned  their  trade  amid  conditions  calculated 
to  develop  it  to  its  highest  plane.  Many  of  the  de- 
tails, in  fact,  strongly  suggest  marine  cabin  work. 
But  beneath  it  all  lay  the  true  spirit  of  craftsman- 
ship inherent  in  the  Yankee  artisan — the  impulse 
to  do  things  as  well  as  they  could  be  done. 

At  first  one  is  inclined  to  marvel  at  the  knowledge 
of  styles  which  these  wood  workers  evidently  pos- 
sessed. Most  of  them  were  Yankees  born  and  bred ; 
they  did  not  travel;  they  never  saw  the  best  ex- 
amples of  English  Georgian  work.  But  they  were 
not  illiterate  men.  They  knew  how  to  use  books, 
and  it  was  from  books  as  well  as  from  their  masters 
that  they  doubtless  drew  a  large  share  of  their  in- 
spiration. The  Salem  period  from  1785  to  1810 
reflects  strikingly  the  influence  of  Robert  and  James 
Adam,  whose  books  on  interior  decoration  appeared 
in  1783  and  1786.  The  Salem  master  carpenters 
had  access  to  the  best  architectural  books  of  the 
period,  but  they  were  not  slavish  copyists.  They 
adapted  the  best  that  they  found,  and  the  style  suf- 
fered not  in  its  translation  at  their  hands, 

[21] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

The  names  of  most  of  these  artists  in  wood  have 
been  forgotten,  but  one  stands  out  preeminent  as 
master  of  them  all — Samuel  Mclntire.  It  was  he 
who  impressed  his  personality  most  definitely  on  the 
architecture  of  Salem  from  1782  to  1811.  He  de- 
signed nearly  all  of  the  best  houses  of  that  period. 
To  him  more  than  to  any  other  is  due  the  credit  for 
our  heritage  of  classic  workmanship  still  to  be  seen 
in  Salem. 

Samuel  Mclntire  was  born,  lived,  and  died  in 
Salem.  He  never  went  abroad,  and  so  far  as  we 
know  he  learned  all  he  knew  from  his  books  and 
from  the  ship  builders  and  carpenters  of  his  native 
town.  All  of  his  work  was  done  in  and  near  Sa- 
lem. 

In  spite  of  these  limitations  of  training,  however, 
Mclntire's  work  displays  a  depth  and  breadth  of  ar- 
tistic feeling  and  understanding  that  are  truly  re- 
markable in  view  of  his  restricted  opportunities. 
He  was  the  artistic  descendant  of  Inigo  Jones,  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,  Grinling  Gibbons,  and  the 
brothers  Adam ;  he  was  also  their  peer  in  originality 
as  well  as  in  fidelity  to  the  best  classic  traditions. 
More  chaste  and  severe  than  Wren  and  Gibbons,  he 
was  more  fanciful  than  Adam.  Perhaps  it  was  his 
very  freedom  from  the  schools  that  gave  him  faith 

[22] 


Hall  in  the  Nichols  house,  Salem,  designed  by  Mclntire.     The  picture  includes  the 
original  carved  gate-posts  as  well  as  a  bit  of  the  fine  woodwork. 


McINTIRE,  MASTER  CARPENTER 

in  his  own  genius  to  do  the  thing  that  best  suited 
given  conditions,  and  this  faith  seldom  led  him 
astray. 

Few  of  the  details  of  Mclntire's  life  have  been 
preserved  in  any  form.  The  best  sketch  of  him, 
though  exasperatingly  brief,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
diary  of  William  Bentley,  D.D.,  pastor  of  the  East 
Church,  Salem.  On  February  7,  1811,  Bentley 
wrote  as  follows : 

"This  day  Salem  was  deprived  of  one  of  the  most 
ingenious  men  it  had  in  it.  Samuel  Mclntire,  aet. 
54,  in  Summer  Street.  He  was  descended  of  a  fam- 
ily of  Carpenters  who  had  no  claims  on  public  favor 
and  was  educated  at  a  branch  of  that  business.  By 
attention  he  soon  gained  a  superiority  to  all  of  his  oc- 
cupation and  the  present  Court  House,  the  North 
and  South  Meeting  Houses,  and  indeed  all  the  im- 
provements of  Salem  for  nearly  thirty  years  past 
have  been  done  under  his  eye.  In  Sculpture  he  had 
no  rival  in  New  England  and  I  possess  some  speci- 
mens which  I  should  not  scruple  to  compare  with 
any  I  ever  saw.  To  the  best  of  my  abilities  I  en- 
couraged him  in  this  branch.  In  Music  he  had  a 
good  taste  and  tho'  not  presuming  to  be  an  original 
composer,  he  was  among  our  best  Judges  and  most 

[25] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

able  performers.  All  the  instruments  we  use  he 
could  understand  and  was  the  best  person  to  be  em- 
ployed in  correcting  any  defects,  or  repairing  them. 
He  had  a  fine  person,  a  majestic  appearance,  calm- 
countenance,  great  self  command  and  amiable  tem- 
per. He  was  welcome  but  never  intruded.  He  had 
complained  of  some  obstruction  in  the  chest,  but 
when  he  died  it  was  unexpectedly.  The  late  in- 
crease of  workmen  in  wood  has  been  from  the  de- 
mand for  exportation  and  this  has  added  nothing 
to  the  character  and  reputation  of  the  workmen, 
so  that  upon  the  death  of  Mr.  Mclntire  no  man  is 
left  to  be  consulted  upon  a  new  plan  of  execution 
beyond  his  bare  practice." 

A  brief  obituary  notice  in  the  Salem  Gazette  of 
February  8,  1811,  also  shows  the  esteem  in  which 
Mclntire  was  held: 

"Died:  Mr.  Mclntire,  a  man  much  beloved  and 
sincerely  lamented.  He  was  originally  bred  to  the 
occupation  of  a  housewright  but  his  vigorous  mind 
soon  passed  the  limits  of  his  profession  and  aspired 
to  the  interesting  and  admirable  science  of  archi- 
tecture in  which  he  advanced  far  beyond  most  of 
his  countrymen.  He  made  an  assiduous  study  of 

[26] 


Coat-of-arms  of  Massachusetts,  designed  and  carved  in  wood  by  Mclntire.       Now 
in  the  Essex  Institute,  Salem. 


Mclntire's  stairways  and  banisters  are  always  interesting.      Nichols  house. 


McINTIRE,  MASTER  CARPENTER 

the  great  classical  masters  with  whose  works,  not- 
withstanding their  rarity  in  this  country,  Mr.  Mc- 
Intire  had  a  very  intimate  acquaintance." 

Samuel  Mclntire  was  born  in  Salem  in  1757. 
His  father  was  Joseph  Mclntire,  a  joiner,  and  it  is 
likely  that  he  learned  his  trade  from  him.  He 
studied  and  practised  wood  carving  under  local  mas- 
ters and  soon  became  noted  for  his  skill.  This  craft 
he  practised  all  his  life,  though  the  need  for  archi- 
tects where  architects  were  scarce  led  him  into  the 
designing  of  homes. 

In  one  sense  he  never  became  a  great  architect. 
His  houses  are  mostly  the  square,  three-story  man- 
sions of  the  period,  that  leave  much  to  be  desired  in 
the  way  of  grace  and  variety.  His  fame  rests  rather 
on  the  beauty  of  the  embellishments  of  these  houses 
— their  doorways,  window  frames,  cornices,  gate- 
posts, and  their  incomparable  interior  woodwork. 

As  was  not  uncommon  in  those  days,  Mcln tire's 
name  suffered  many  variations  in  spelling,  but  the 
one  given  here  is  supported  by  the  best  authority. 

He  died  February  6,  1811,  and  was  laid  to  rest 
in  the  Charter  Street  Burial  Ground,  Salem.  His 
grave-stone,  which  is  still  to  be  seen,  reads  as  fol- 
lows: 

[29] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

IN  MEMORY  OF 
MR.  SAMUEL  McINTIRE 

WHO  DIED  FEB.  6,  1811 
AET.  54 


He  was  distinguished  for  Genius  in  Archi- 
tecture, Sculpture,  and  Musick:  Modest  and 
sweet  Manners  rendered  him  pleasing;  In- 
dustry and  Integrity  respectable :  He  pro- 
fessed the  Religion  of  Jesus  in  his  entrance 
on  manly  life ;  and  proved  its  excellence  by 
virtuous  Principle  and  unblemished  conduct. 

He  left  .three  children,  all  boys;  one  other  died 
in  infancy. 

Mclntire  died  intestate,  but  his  executors  drew  up 
an  inventory  of  his  effects  which  is  on  record  in  the 
Essex  County  Probate  Office  and  which  contains 
much  of  interest  to  the  searcher  after  Mclntire  data. 
This  inventory  shows  that  he  was  not  a  rich  man. 
His  house  and  shop  were  valued  at  $3,000  and  his 
personal  property  at  $1,190,  besides  some  $963  in 
notes.  This  property  was  left  to  his  widow,  Eliza- 
beth Mclntire. 

The  most  interesting  items  on  this  list  are  his 
carving  tools,  his  books,  and  his  music  and  musical 
instruments.  He  left  "a  large  hand  organ  with  ten 
barrels,"  "a  double  bass  (musical  instrument),"  a 

[30] 


McINTIRE,  MASTER  CARPENTER 

violin  and  case,  and  a  collection  of  books  of  music, 
including  an  edition  of  Handel's  "Messiah."  His 
small  but  well  selected  library  indicates  his  taste  and 
culture.  Among  his  architectural  works  were  Palla- 
dio's  Architecture,  Ware's  Architecture,  Architecture 
by  Langley,  another  by  Paine,  Dictionary  of  Arts' 
and  Sciences,  a  book  of  sculptures,  and  two  volumes 
of  French  architecture.  The  possession  of  the  Pal- 
ladio  explains  much. 

In  his  shop  was  found  a  complete  equipment  of 
carver's,  joiner's,  and  draughting  tools,  including 
three  hundred  chisels  and  gouges  and  forty-six  mold- 
ing planes.  This  set  of  tools  was  famous  at  the  time 
for  its  size  and  completeness.  He  also  left  eight  of 
his  Washington  medallions  and  a  number  of  finished 
ornaments,  etc. 

In  1792  Mclntire  took  part  in  the  first  public  ar- 
chitectural competition  held  in  this  country.  He 
submitted  plans  for  the  new  national  capitol  at 
Washington,  but  apparently  they  lacked  impressive- 
ness,  for  they  were  rejected.  The  original  drawings, 
however,  which  are  preserved  by  the  Maryland  His- 
torical Society,  exhibit  great  refinement  and  dignity. 

There  were  a  few  public  buildings  in  Massachu- 
setts which  were  built  from  his  plans.  He  was  the 
architect  for  the  old  South  Church  in  Salem,  which 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

was  built  in  1804  and  destroyed  by  fire  in  1903. 
It  was  famous  for  its  graceful  steeple.  The  steeple 
of  the  Park  Street  Church,  Boston,  has  been  attrib- 
uted to  him,  but  erroneously.  The  old  Salem 
Court  House,  completed  in  1786,  was  designed  by 
Mclntire,  and  also  the  Registry  of  Deeds,  erected  on 
Broad  Street  in  1807.  A  mantel  taken  from  this 
latter  building  is  now  to  be  seen  at  the  Essex  Insti- 
tute. He  also  designed  the  old  Assembly  Hall,  at 
138  Federal  Street,  which  was  built  in  1782  and  was 
converted  into  a  private  residence  about  1795. 

The  greater  portion  of  Mclntire's  work,  however, 
is  to  be  found  in  the  mansions  of  Salem  and  vicinity, 
which  are  unquestionably  among  the  chief  archi- 
tectural treasures  of  eastern  Massachusetts  to-day. 
A  score  or  more  of  them  are  attributed  to  him. 
Among  those  which  bear  the  marks  of  authenticity 
are  the  Pierce-Johonnot-Nichols  house  at  80  Federal 
Street,  built  in  1782;  Hamilton  Hall,  on  Chestnut 
Street,  built  in  1808;  the  Crowninshield  mansion  on 
Derby  Street,  built  in  1810;  the  Derby-Rogers- 
Maynes  house  on  Essex  Street;  the  White-Pingree 
house  at  128  Essex  Street,  built  in  1810;  the  Tucker- 
Rice  house,  129  Essex  Street,  built  in  1800  and 
partly  dismantled  in  1910;  the  Cook-Oliver  house, 
142  Federal  Street,  erected  in  1804;  the  Kimball 

[32] 


Pediment  from  the  old  Custom  House,  Salem,  carved    by    Mclntire   in  1805  and 
now  owned   by  the  Essex  Institute. 


The  famous  Washington  medallion  that  once  adorned  the 
Mclntire  archway,  Washington  Square,  Salem. 


McINTIRE,  MASTER  CARPENTER 

house  at  14  Pickman  Street;  Oak  Hill,  the  Rogers 
home  at  Peabody,  built  in  1800;  and  a  few  others. 

One  of  the  most  noteworthy  of  these  is  the 
Nichols  house,  a  splendid  relic  of  the  day  of  com- 
mercial prosperity.  The  interior  woodwork  here  has 
been  studied  by  architects  for  a  generation  or  more 
and  represents  Mcln tire's  most  painstaking  crafts- 
manship. The  splendid  porches  and  gateways  also 
bear  witness  to  his  skill  as  a  designer. 

Perhaps  the  most  famous  is  the  Cook-Oliver  house. 
Its  history  is  linked  with  that  of  the  old  Derby 
house  which  was  in  its  day  the  most  sumptuous  man- 
sion in  this  section  of  the  country.  In  1799  Elias 
Hasket  Derby,  a  successful  and  wealthy  merchant, 
erected  a  house  on  what  is  now  Market  Square  at  a 
cost  of  $80,000.  Mclntire  was  the  architect  and,  as 
expense  was  not  considered,  he  placed  therein  some 
of  the  finest  of  all  his  interior  woodwork  and  carv- 
ing. The  plans  of  this  house  are  now  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Essex  Institute.  Derby  did  not  live  long 
to  enjoy  this  house,  and  upon  his  death  it  was  offered 
for  sale,  as  his  heirs  found  its  maintenance  beyond 
their  means.  No  purchaser  appeared,  and  the  house 
was  finally  torn  down  in  1814  to  make  room  for  a 
public  market. 

Meanwhile,   Captain   Samuel   Cook  had  started 

[35] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

building  another  Mclntire  house  which  was  later  oc- 
cupied by  his  daughter,  who,  in  1825,  married  Gen- 
eral Henry  K.  Oliver,  mayor  of  Lawrence  and 
Salem,  and  a  man  of  progressive  activities.  This 
house  was  enriched  with  hand  carving. 

When  the  Derby  house  was  torn  down  its  timbers 
and  woodwork  were  purchased  by  Salem  citizens, 
and  Captain  Cook  secured  some  of  the  finest  of  the 
Mclntire  gate-posts,  mantels,  etc.,  for  his  new  home, 
so  that  the  Oliver  house  to-day  contains  some  of  the 
most  noteworthy  of  Mclntire's  work.  Fortunately 
for  posterity  the  great  Salem  fire  just  missed  this 
house.  It  was  here  that  General  Oliver  composed 
his  famous  hymn,  "Federal  Street." 

A  third  house  which  contains  a  wealth  of  Mcln- 
tire's  work  is  Oak  Hill,  at  Peabody,  near  Salem. 
Its  chimney  pieces,  door  frames,  cornices,  etc.,  are  re- 
markable for  their  fine  and  beautiful  detail  and  ex- 
quisite proportions  and  represent  the  great  carver  and 
designer  at  his  best. 

In  1802  the  Salem  Common  was  graded  and 
planted  with  trees  and  named  Washington  Square. 
In  1805,  Mclntire  designed  and  executed  wooden 
gateways  for  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the  square — 
elaborate  arches  embellished  with  carvings.  For 
the  western  gateway  he  carved  a  medallion  likeness 

[36] 


Bust  of  Governor  Winthrop  carved  in  wood  by  Samuel  Mclntire  for  Rev. 
William  Bentley  in  1798  and  now  owned  by  the  American  Anti- 
quarian Society. 


McINTIRE,  MASTER  CARPENTER 

of  General  Washington,  thirty-eight  by  fifty-six 
inches  in  size.  When  the  arches  were  taken  down 
in  1850  this  medallion  was  removed  to  the  Town 
Hall  and  is  now  to  be  seen  at  the  Essex  Institute. 
It  was  carved  in  wood  after  drawings  from  life  made 
by  Mclntire  during  Washington's  visit  to  Salem  in 

1789. 

Mclntire  undoubtedly  attempted  sculpture  in  a 
modest  way,  but  few  authentic  examples  of  his  work 
have  been  preserved.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting 
of  these  is  a  bust  of  Governor  Winthrop,  carved  in 
wood  in  1789  for  William  Bentley  and  now  owned 
by  the  American  Antiquarian  Society. 

Any  attempt  to  analyze  Mclntire's  style  too 
closely,  and  to  pick  out  hall-marks  for  identification, 
is  likely  to  lead  one  into  deep  water.  He  had  his 
favorite  motifs  and  design  details,  but  they  differ 
but  slightly  from  those  of  other  American  craftsmen 
of  the  period  who,  like  Mclntire,  felt  the  Adam  in- 
fluence, and  there  were  some  who  did  not  scruple  to 
copy  him.  But  his  workmanship  so  far  surpassed 
that  of  his  rivals  that  a  careful  study  of  contem- 
porary work  makes  it  not  difficult  to  pick  out  the 
handicraft  of  the  master.  His  proportions  were  al- 
ways perfect,  his  details  fine,  and  his  balance  be- 
tween plain  surfaces  and  decoration  carefully 

[39] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

studied.  His  finely  modeled  cornices,  pilasters, 
wainscot  borders,  and  lintels  are  never  over-elabo- 
rate, never  weak,  and  his  applied  ornament  is  always 
clean-cut,  graceful,  and  chaste.  It  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  discover,  in  the  Old  World  or  the  New,  a 
more  thoroughly  satisfying  expression  of  the  wood- 
worker's art  than  the  work  of  this  master  carpenter 
of  Salem. 


[40] 


Eight-legged  sofa  of  the  Sheraton  type,  by  Duncan  Phyfe.     Owned  by  R.  T.  Haines 
-    Halsey,  Esq.,  New  York. 


The  long,  three-support  extension  table  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York. 


yyf 


CHAPTER  III 

THE    EXQUISITE    FURNITURE    OF    DUNCAN    PHYFE 

SO  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  discover  there  are 
not  many  more  than  one  hundred  pieces  of 
genuine  Duncan  Phyfe  furniture  to  be  found 
in  museums  or  private  collections  to-day.  It  is  a 
great  pity,  for  Americans  ought  to  know  more  about 
the  work  of  this  New  York  cabinet-maker  of  a  hun- 
dred years  ago.  Most  of  the  books  on  furniture 
either  fail  to  mention  Phyfe  or  dismiss  him  with  a 
few  words  as  one  of  the  many  followers  of  Sheraton. 
He  was  much  more  than  that,  for  while  he  owed 
much  to  his  English  contemporary  he  developed  a 
style  of  his  own — an  American  style,  mark  you — 
and  the  best  of  his  work  is  equal  to  anything  ever 
produced  by  Sheraton  or  Hepplewhite.  I  think  I 
am  not  overestimating  him.  An  examination  of 
such  pieces  as  are  to  be  found  in  the  collection  of 
Mr.  R.  T.  Haines  Halsey  of  New  York  cannot  fail 
to  awaken  an  enthusiastic  admiration  for  the  ex- 

[43] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

quisite  feeling  for  line,  color,  and  detail  which  ani- 
mated the  work  of  this  post-Revolutionary  crafts- 
man. 

Fortunately,  however,  there  are  now  signs  of  a 
Phyfe  revival.  Since  the  exhibits  at  the  Metropoli- 
tan Museum  of  Art  during  the  Hudson-Fulton  Cele- 
bration in  1909,  the  name  of  Phyfe  has  become  more 
or  less  familiar  to  people  who  never  heard  it  before. 

On  Twenty-sixth  Street,  New  York,  just  east  of 
Third  Avenue,  there  is  a  dusty,  crowded  little  shop 
where  fine  reproductions  of  old  furniture  are  made 
by  two  men  named  Hagen,  who  learned  their  trade 
from  their  father,  Ernest  Hagen,  lately  deceased, 
who  was  an  inspired  craftsman  of  the  old  school. 
It  is  not  my  purpose  to  advertise  a  modern  cabinet- 
making  business,  but  if  it  had  not  been  for  the 
unencouraged  persistence  and  artistic  enthusiasm 
of  Mr.  Hagen  the  elder,  it  is  likely  that  we  should 
be  ignorant  of  the  little  we  now  know  about  Duncan 
Phyfe.  Mr.  Hagen  followed  every  clue,  inter- 
viewed every  surviving  relative,  and  before  he  died 
set  down  his  discoveries  in  a  notebook  which, 
through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Halsey,  is  now  before 
me. 

While  I  have  been  able  to  obtain  some  additional 

k 

information  about  Phyfe  and  his  work,  I  think  I 

[44] 


FURNITURE  OF  DUNCAN  PHYFE 

cannot  do  better  than  quote  at  some  length  from  Mr. 
Hagen's  notebook. 

"In  1783  or  1784,"  he  writes,  "just  after  the  close 
of  the  Revolutionary  War,  a  Scotch  family  by  the 
name  of  Phyfe  left  their  home  at  Loch  Fannich, 
thirty  miles  northwest  of  Inverness,  with  six  or  eight 
children,  of  whom  two  died  on  the  long  voyage  in 
the  old,  slow  sailing  vessel.  Coming  here  they  set- 
tled in  or  near  Albany,  New  York. 

"The  second  oldest  son,  Duncan,  then  about  six- 
teen years  old,  learned  the  cabinet-maker's  trade  in 
Albany,  and  after  a  time  set  up  a  shop  for  himself. 
But  he  could  not  find  work  enough  to  make  it  pay  in 
Albany,  so  he  moved  to  New  York  and  started  busi- 
ness in  Broad  Street  where  most  of  the  cabinet- 
makers were  then  located.  He  got  some  work  from 
Mrs.  Langdon,  the  daughter  of  John  Jacob  Astor, 
which,  done  to  her  satisfaction,  got  him  more  orders. 
But  after  all  it  was  not  enough,  and  he  concluded 
that  he  would  go  back  to  Albany  and  try  it  there  a 
second  time.  When  Mrs.  Langdon  heard  of  this 
she  persuaded  him  to  stay  here  and  promised  to  help 
him  wherever  she  could  and  recommend  him  to  her 
friends. 

"He  remained  in  New  York,  and  after  several 
moves  finally  settled  at  35  Partition  Street,  which  is 

[45] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

now  that  part  of  Fulton  Street  lying  west  of  Broad- 
way, East  Fulton  Street  being  then  called  Fair 
Street.  This  was  in  1795.  In  *8i6  the  name  of 
the  street  was  changed  to  Fulton  and  the  houses 
were  renumbered,  his  number  being  192  and  194 
with  his  dwelling  house  opposite  at  193. 

"In  1837  the  firm's  name  changed  to  Duncan 
Phyfe  &  Sons.  In  1840  it  again  changed  to  Duncan 
Phyfe  &  Son,  the  son's  name  being  James  D.  Phyfe. 
In  1847  he  sold  out  and  retired,  but  still  lived  at 
193  Fulton  Street  until  his  death,  which  occurred 
August  16,  1854,  in  the  eighty-sixth  year  of  his  age. 
He  was  buried  in  the  family  vault  in  Greenwood 
Cemetery,  Brooklyn.  His  wife  Rachel  (nee  Salde 
or  Salade)  was  born  in  Holland  and  died  July  17, 
1851. 

"Duncan  Phyfe's  chief  merit  lies  in  the  carrying 
out  and  especially  improving  of  the  Sheraton  style 
of  settees,  chairs,  and  tables  in  his  best  period.  The 
work  about  1820,  although  the  workmanship  was 
perfect,  gradually  degenerated  in  style,  at  first  to  the 
questionable  American  Empire,  and  after  1830  to 
the  heavy  and  nondescript  veneered  style  of  the  time 
when  the  cholera  first  appeared  in  New  York. 
From  1833  to  1840  or  1845  the  overdecorated  and 

[46] 


Phyfe  extension  table   with  two  four-pillar  supports,   showing  fine   acanthus-leaf 
carving.      Halsey  Collection. 


Folding  card  table  with  octagonal  top  and  crossed  lyre  support.     Halsey  Collection 


FURNITURE  OF  DUNCAN  PHYFE 

carved  rosewood  style  set  in  which  Phyfe  himself 
called  'butcher  furniture.' 

"Phyfe's  shop  stood  at  the  west  corner  of  Church 
Street.  This  whole  block  is  now  being  pulled  down 
[1907]  to  make  room  for  the  new  tunnel  to  Jersey 
City.  The  site  of  his  house  opposite  is  now  occupied 
by  the  Fire  Department  as  an  engine  house. 

"Within  a  stone's  throw  of  the  old  shop,  in  the 
sexton's  office  of  St.  Paul's  Church,  is  one  of  Phyfe's 
sofas.  Two  chairs  which  they  had  to  match  it  were 
lost. 

"Duncan  Phyfe  of  Jersey  City,  now  ninety-three 
years  old  [since  deceased],  who  knows  more  about 
the  old  affairs  than  any  of  the  other  members  of  the 
family,  says  that  his  uncle  was  a  very  plain  man, 
always  working  and  always  smoking  a  short  pipe. 
In  1842  a  Lord  John  Hays  visited  his  shop  to  get 
some  information  concerning  cabinet  woods,  when 
he  would  not  even  take  the  pipe  out  of  his  mouth. 
He  was  very  strict  in  his  habits  and  all  the  members 
of  the  family  had  to  be  in  bed  by  nine  o'clock. 
After  retiring  from  business  he  kept  on  working  at 
the  bench  making  small  things  for  his  folks  which 
they  still  preserve.  .  .  ." 

Duncan  Phyfe  is  described  by  his  grandson  as  a 

[49] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

small  man  of  slight  build.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Brick  Presbyterian  Church  and  a  very  strict  Cal- 
vinist.  The  more  austere  tenets  of  his  faith  had  the 
effect  of  making  his  latter  years  somewhat  gloomy. 

He  was  married  young  and  had  four  sons  and 
three  daughters,  the  eldest  daughter  being  named 
Isabella  after  the  sister  who  had  died  at  sea.  For 
this  daughter  he  built  and  furnished  a  commodious 
mansion  at  New  Market,  New  Jersey,  which  is  now 
occupied  by  his  great-grandson,  Mr.  F.  P.  Vail. 

Mr.  Vail,  by  the  way,  owns  several  excellent  ex- 
amples of  Duncan  Phyfe  furniture,  particularly  of 
the  Empire  period.  He  also  treasures  a  silver  tea 
service  which  Phyfe  designed,  had  executed  in  New 
York,  and  presented  to  his  wife  at  the  close  of  the 
War  of  1812. 

Mrs.  Vail  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  the 
name  was  spelled  Fife  or  Fyfe  in  Scotland,  but  that 
the  family  changed  it  for  business  reasons  after  set- 
tling here. 

At  least  one  of  Phyfe's  brothers — Lockland — was 
associated  with  him  in  business,  while  John  Phyfe 
was  a  grocer  at  30  Barclay  Street.  After  1820  the 
names  of  several  Phyfes  appear  in  the  directories, 
perhaps  sons  and  nephews  of  the  cabinet-maker. 
There  was  James  A.  Phyfe,  a  cabinet-maker  on 

[50] 


FURNITURE  OF  DUNCAN  PHYFE 

James  Street;  James,  a  carver,  at  30  Barclay  Street; 
John,  Jr.,  ivory  turner,  30  Barclay  Street;  Michael, 
cabinet-maker,  38  Dey  Street. 

The  Hudson  Terminal  Building  now  stands  on 
the  site  of  Duncan  Phyfe's  shop.  His  name  and 
trade  appear  in  the  New  York  Directory  of  1802 — 
the  only  Phyfe  in  the  book — with  the  Partition 
Street  address.  When  the  name  of  the  street  was 
changed  to  Fulton  in  1816,  Phyfe's  numbers  were 
at  first  168-172,  with  his  house  at  169;  thus  he  ap- 
pears in  the  1821  directory.  The  numbers  were 
changed  to  194-196  and  193  about  1826. 

It  is  recorded  that  Phyfe's  business  grew  until 
he  employed  over  a  hundred  journeymen  cabi- 
net-makers. Nevertheless,  he  undoubtedly  went 
through  a  severe  struggle  before  he  succeeded.  In 
fact,  he  was  never  so  successful  that  he  could  af- 
ford to  be  independent ;  he  was  obliged  to  follow  the 
tastes  of  the  times,  which  accounts  for  the  deplorable 
deterioration  of  his  style  after  1820.  His  ideals 
of  craftsmanship,  however,  never  permitted  him  to 
turn  out  poor  construction  or  slipshod  workmanship, 
so  that  he  never  made  cheap  furniture.  Conse- 
quently, his  market  was  limited  to  the  well-to-do 
class  which  was  none  too  numerous  in  those  post' 
Revolutionary  days. 

[51] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

During  the  first  few  years  of  his  New  York  career, 
before  his  work  was  appreciated,  he  must  have  had  a 
hard  fight  for  business  existence,  but  he  held  to  his 
artistic  ideals  and  perfected  his  style  and  workman- 
ship. It  was  his  very  attitude  of  exclusiveness,  no 
doubt,  which  at  last  caught  the  fancy  of  wealthy 
patrons.  The  Astors  took  him  up  between  1798 
and  1800  and  started  the  Duncan  Phyfe  vogue,  and 
he  was  saved  from  bankruptcy. 

In  spite  of  Phyfe's  just  claim  to  artistic  recogni- 
tion, and  in  spite  of  his  prominence  in  the  commer- 
cial life  of  New  York,  his  name  is  scarcely  men- 
tioned in  any  of  the  local  histories  or  biographical 
dictionaries.  In  fact,  the  only  mention  of  any  inter- 
est that  I  have  found  has  been  taken  from  the  official 
narrative  of  the  Erie  Canal  Celebration,  prepared  by 
Col.  Wm.  L.  Stone  in  1825.  After  Gov.  DeWitt 
Clinton  had  performed  the  ceremony  of  the  com- 
mingling of  the  waters  of  Lake  Erie  with  those  of 
the  Atlantic,  a  portion  of  the  water  was  placed  in  an 
American-made  glass  bottle  to  be  sent  to  France  as  a 
gift  to  General  Lafayette.  The  bottle  was  placed 
in  a  wooden  box  or  casket  made  from  a  cedar  log 
brought  down  from  Erie  in  the  first  canal  boat, 
Seneca  Chief,  and  the  man  who  constructed  the  cas- 

[52] 


'C  w 
0.2 


FURNITURE  OF  DUNCAN  PHYFE 

ket  was  Duncan  Phyfe,  the  most  skilled  wood- 
worker in  the  city. 

In  the  course  of  his  investigations  Mr.  Hagen  dis- 
covered an  old  bill  made  out  by  Phyfe  on  January 
4,  1816,  for  goods  sold  to  Charles  N.  Bancker  of 
Philadelphia.  It  is  valuable  for  several  reasons: 
it  is  a  personal  document  a  hundred  years  old,  in  the 
handwriting  of  a  man  of  distinction,  and  it  gives 
the  current  prices  for  the  better  class  furniture  of 
those  days.  Single  chairs  were  priced  at  $22  each, 
a  sofa  at  $122,  a  pier  table  at  $265,  a  pair  of  card 
tables  $130,  etc.  While  our  factories  are  to-day 
able  to  turn  out  well-made  furniture  at  lower  prices 
than  these,  it  is  not  to  be  compared  with  the  Phyfe 
pieces  for  beauty  or  for  thoroughness  of  workman- 
ship. For  hand-made  furniture  it  was  not  costly, 
for  rents  and  wages  were  lower  then,  and  these  same 
pieces  could  not  be  duplicated  to-day,  with  anything 
like  the  same  grade  of  materials  and  workmanship, 
at  those  prices.  The  chairs  would  cost  from  $25 
to  $35  and  the  other  pieces  in  proportion. 

In  connection  with  these  figures  it  is  interesting  to 
learn  that  the  journeymen  cabinet-makers  of  that 
day  had  an  effective  and  dignified  union  organiza- 
tion which  fixed  the  prices  on  all  work.  There  are 

[55] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

copies  in  existence  of  an  interesting  old  book  pub- 
lished in  1796  by  "The  Journeymen  Cabinet  and 
Chair  Makers  of  New  York,"  which  gives  in  detail 
the  union's  prices  for  every  sort  of  furniture  then 
made,  with  all  possible  modifications,  and  states  that 
the  journeymen  shall  "work  ten  hours  per  day;  em- 
ployers to  find  candles." 

Phyfe  designed  his  furniture  by  fashioning  models 
in  his  workshop.  He  was  a  wretched  draftsman,  as 
is  shown  by  two  sketches  on  the  back  of  the  afore- 
mentioned bill,  which  offend  all  laws  of  proportion 
and  perspective.  He  was  an  artist  with  his  tools, 
not  with  his  pencil. 

Phyfe's  work  may  be  divided  into  three  periods: 
the  Adam-Sheraton  from  1795  to  about  1818;  the 
American  Empire  from  1818  to  1830;  the  "butcher 
furniture"  from  1830  to  1847.  On  the  work  of  the 
first  period  and  part  of  the  second  his  claim  to  im- 
mortality rests.  As  has  already  been  stated,  the  de- 
terioration of  his  style  was  through  no  choice  of  his 
but  because  he  was  obliged  by  commercial  condi- 
tions to  follow  the  fashions  of  the  times.  Even  the 
quality  of  workmanship  fell  off  during  hard  times 
because  there  was  no  market  for  expensive  furniture 
and  Phyfe  had  to  make  a  living.  As  a  result  the 
beautiful  carving  and  finely  modeled  tool  work 

[56] 


FURNITURE  OF  DUNCAN  PHYFE 

gradually  disappeared  and  his  furniture  became  less 
and  less  distinctive.  After  the  War  of  1812  times 
were  especially  hard;  there  was  a  financial  panic  in 
1817;  and  probably  Phyfe  made  very  little  of  his 
finer  furniture  during  these  years.  After  1818  he 
yielded  gradually  to  the  popular  influence  of  the 
styles  of  the  French  Empire,  and  the  first  of  his  Em- 
pire pieces  display  considerable  merit,  but  he  was 
soon  obliged  to  give  way  before  the  demand  for 
heavier  and  more  showy  designs.  In  short,  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  the  finest  examples  of  Phyfe's  work  now 
in  existence — those  worthy  to  be  known  as  "Phyfe 
furniture" — belong  to  the  period  prior  to  1812. 

Before  venturing  into  an  analysis  of  Phyfe's  pe- 
culiar style  and  a  study  of  its  sources  and  develop- 
ment, it  may  be  well  to  mention  briefly  the  various 
kinds  of  furniture  on  which  he  specialized.  These 
were  chiefly  chairs,  sofas,  tables,  and  sideboards. 
He  worked  in  mahogany,  plain  and  veneered,  im- 
porting the  finest  quality  of  Cuban  and  Santo  Do- 
mingan  wood.  It  is  said  that  his  insistence  on  qual- 
ity in  the  raw  material  led  the  West  Indian  exporters 
to  speak  of  the  very  finest  timbers  as  "Duncan  Phyfe 
logs,"  and  to  mark  them  with  his  initials.  He  is  said 
to  have  paid  as  high  as  $1,000  apiece  for  some  of 
these  logs.  He  was  very  proud  of  his  wood  and 

[57] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

owned  a  private  yard  where  he  stacked  his  lumber. 
Thus  he  made  certain  of  perfect  seasoning.  He  se- 
lected and  cut  his  veneering  with  the  utmost  care  and 
applied  it  with  Peter  Cooper's  best  glue.  Except  for 
a  little  satinwood  and  bird's-eye  maple,  Phyfe  used 
practically  nothing  but  mahogany,  until  he  was 
forced  to  supply  the  demand  for  rosewood  toward  the 
end  of  his  career. 

Of  his  sideboards,  I  have  never  seen  one  in  the 
style  of  his  early  period,  and  I  am  led  to  believe  that 
he  made  few  if  any  until  after  1820.  He  is  said  to 
have  followed  Sheraton,  Hepplewhite,  and  Chip- 
pendale in  his  sideboard  designs,  but  those  I  have 
seen  have  all  shown  Empire  characteristics,  and  they 
range  from  very  fine  to  commonplace. 

Two  types  of  chairs  are  especially  worthy  of  men- 
tion. In  one — probably  the  earlier — the  back  shows 
two  horizontal  pieces,  finely  carved  and  modeled, 
and  curved  to  fit  the  body.  In  the  other  the  motif 
of  the  back  is  the  lyre,  which  indicates  the  approach 
of  the  Empire  feeling.  This  lyre,  often  finely 
carved  and  with  strings  of  brass  or  whalebone,  was 
one  of  Phyfe's  favorite  details,  not  only  for  chairs, 
but  for  tables,  sofas,  and  other  pieces. 

Phyfe's  chairs  are  alone  sufficient  to  give  the  lie 
to  the  claim  that  he  was  a  mere  adapter  of  Shera- 

[58] 


I! 


5  *v 

- 


B 

33 


FURNITURE  OF  DUNCAN  PHYFE 

ton's  designs,  for  while  Sheraton  loved  straight  lines 
and  right  angles,  Phyfe  was  devoted  to  graceful  and 
delicate  curves.  A  few  of  his  early  chairs  show 
straight  legs,  but  for  the  most  part  his  chair  legs 
sweep  outward  in  a  concave  curve  of  infinite  grace. 
This  is  true  not  only  of  the  later  period,  when  it 
might  have  been  explained  on  the  ground  of  Empire 
influence,  but  of  much  of  his  earlier  work.  The 
chair  backs,  too,  were  curved  gracefully  backward, 
and  the  line  of  the  stiles,  seat,  and  front  legs  usually 
formed  one  continuous  curve. 

His  sofas  and  settees  show  many  of  the  character- 
istics of  the  chairs,  with  the  same  mastery  of  sweep- 
ing curve,  exquisite  proportion,  and  dainty  detail, 
and  with  the  lyre  motif  used  frequently  at  the 
ends. 

His  tables  are  equally  distinguished  in  design  and 
workmanship.  He  made  several  types  of  dining 
tables,  both  extension  and  sectional,  with  the  lyre 
frequently  appearing  in  the  pedestals.  The  same 
motif  appears  often  on  his  smaller  tables,  but  their 
more  noticeable  characteristic  is  the  avoidance  of 
straight  lines  in  both  tops  and  legs.  The  leaves 
are  nearly  always  slightly  rounded,  with  sometimes 
the  clover-leaf  pattern  at  the  corners.  The  pedes- 
tals are  often  either  crossed  lyres  or  finely  carved 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

pillars,  to  which  are  attached  three  or  four  legs, 
curving  gracefully  outward  in  the  characteristic  con- 
cave sweep.  Phyfe  certainly  never  copied  this 
curve  from  his  Georgian  predecessors.  He  seldom 
if  ever  made  a  table  with  four  vertical  legs  at  the 
corners  until  after  1830. 

A  specialty  of  his  was  a  card  table  standing  on  a 
tripod  fitted  with  an  internal  mechanism  which 
made  it  possible  to  move  two  of  the  legs  outward 
and  drop  a  leaf,  so  that  the  table  could  be  placed 
close  against  the  wall.  These  tables,  which  cost 
about  $60  apiece,  cannot  be  duplicated  to-day  for 
less  than  $75. 

In  the  handling  of  mahogany  to  bring  out  its  high- 
est value  of  texture  and  color,  Phyfe  never  had  a 
superior.  He  loved  the  wood  and  was  a  master  in 
the  treatment  of  both  carved  and  plain  surfaces. 
He  used  no  marquetry,  no  inlay  of  lighter  woods, 
but  frequently  he  placed  most  effectively  an  inlaid 
panel  of  crotch  mahogany  veneer  on  a  surface  of 
plainer  wood.  The  result  is  at  once  elegant  and  re- 
strained. His  simple,  plain  moldings  and  reedings 
are  clean-cut  and  fine.  He  was  very  fond  of  paral- 
lel rows  of  reeding  along  the  legs  of  chairs  and 
tables  and  the  arms  of  chairs  and  sofas,  which  ac- 
centuate the  curving  lines  and  the  effect  of  slender- 

[62] 


FURNITURE  OF  DUNCAN  PHYFE 

ness.  His  table  drawers  are  often  edged  with  a 
delicate,  plain,  rounded  molding  that  is  charming. 

His  simpler  carving  was  executed  with  the  utmost 
care  and  precision;  his  more  elaborate  work  was  a 
marvel  of  the  art.  The  acanthus  was  a  favorite  mo- 
tif on  sofa  legs,  table  pedestals,  etc.,  and  wheat  ears, 
swags,  and  other  classic  details  often  appear  on  the 
backs  of  chairs  and  sofas,  in  low  but  sharp  relief. 
This  carving  was  always  refined  and  well  placed. 

About  1805  Phyfe,  like  Sheraton,  accepted  the  de- 
mand for  brass  mountings,  but  in  spite  of  the  on- 
ward sweep  of  the  Empire  vogue  he  kept  his  brass- 
work  delicate  and  refined.  He  made  lyre  strings 
and  drawer  pulls  of  brass,  and  used  brass  lion  paws 
for  table  feet. 

Duncan  Phyfe  unquestionably  exerted  a  restrain- 
ing and  corrective  influence  on  American  taste.  Sir 
Purdon  Clark,  when  director  of  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art,  asserted  that  as  a  workman  and  de- 
signer Phyfe  surpassed  any  of  his  British  contem- 
poraries. His  best  work  was  well-nigh  perfect  in 
line,  proportion,  and  workmanship,  and  in  its  details 
and  general  design  it  displayed  a  character  all  its 
own.  Moreover,  he  exhibited  a  remarkable  knowl- 
edge of  and  feeling  for  the  principles  of  classic  art. 

When  and  where  he  acquired  this  understanding 

[63] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

it  would  be  difficult  to  say.  He  was  only  a  boy 
when  he  reached  this  country,  and  he  probably 
learned  his  trade  in  Albany.  He  could  not  have 
gained  an  extensive  artistic  education  before  he  left 
Scotland. 

In  general,  Phyfe's  style  throughout  seems  to  be 
composed  of  three  elements,  skilfully  commingled — 
the  Adam-Sheraton,  the  Empire,  and  his  own  origi- 
nality. His  work  undoubtedly  was  influenced  by 
the  Sheraton  popularity  and  shows,  probably  uncon- 
consciously,  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Scotch 
adaptation  of  Sheraton's  style.  Much  more  clearly 
marked,  however,  is  Phyfe's  kinship  with  his  Scotch 
predecessors,  Robert  and  James  Adam.  There  are 
in  existence  Adam  chairs  which  bear  a  close  resem-, 
blance  to  Phyfe's.  In  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum,  in  England,  there  are  two  Adam  chairs 
which  are  particularly  interesting  from  this  point  of 
view.  One  has  a  lyre  in  its  back,  with  brass  strings, 
and  the  other  shows  the  typical  Phyf e  sweep  of  curve 
along  the  stiles,  seat,  and  front  legs.  Other  authen- 
tic Adam  chairs  exhibit  details  more  like  those  of 
Phyfe's  early  work  than  anything  Sheraton  did. 

It  is  not  unlikely  that  Phyfe  owned  books  of  both 
Adam  and  Sheraton  designs  from  which  he  gleaned 
ideas  while  developing  his  own  individual  style. 

[64] 


1! 


I- 


FURNITURE  OF  DUNCAN  PHYFE 

Gradually  he  added  what  he  saw  fit  from  the  Em- 
pire, always  avoiding  excess  in  his  new  departures 
until  the  age  of  monstrosities  had  fully  set  in. 

With  a  hundred  men  employed  in  Phyfe's  shop  it 
seems  strange  that  so  few  pieces  of  his  work  have  come 
down  to  us.  But  we  know  that  his  best  furniture 
was  made  for  a  small  and  wealthy  clientele  and  it 
may  be  that  most  of  his  men  were  busy  with  some 
sort  of  inferior  work  not  now  connected  with  his 
name.  Mr.  Hagen  spent  years  searching  for  au- 
thentic Phyfe  furniture  and  it  is  not  likely  that  he 
missed  very  much.  Mr.  R.  T.  Haines  Halsey  of 
New  York  has  the  largest,  and  in  every  way  the  fin- 
est, collection  I  have  seen — some  twenty  chairs 
and  fifteen  other  pieces.  Mr.  Dwight  Blaney  of 
Boston  and  other  New  York  and  New  England  col- 
lectors have  acquired  a  few  excellent  pieces. 

The  pieces  on  view  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art,  New  York,  unfortunately  do  not  represent 
Phyfe's  best  work.  The  most  notable  piece  is  a  sec- 
tional mahogany  dining  table,  of  unusual  design, 
eleven  feet  six  inches  long  by  four  feet  ten  inches 
wide.  It  is  in  excellent  condition  and  was  the  be- 
quest of  Mrs.  Maria  P.  James  of  Norwalk,  Con- 
necticut. It  is  in  three  sections,  each  standing  on  a 
four-legged  base  carved  in  acanthus  patterns  and 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

with  brass  lion's-paw  feet.  Accompanying  this 
table  there  is  a  set  of  five  lyre-back  chairs. 

The  museum  also  owns  a  smaller  table  of  similar 
design,  and  an  Empire  cabinet  has  been  loaned  to  the 
collection  by  Miss  Anna  P.  Livingston.  It  is  of  fine 
mahogany  veneer  with  glass  doors  and  stands  about 
six  feet  tall.  If  it  is  an  authentic  Phyfe  piece,  it 
represents  his  later  Empire  style. 

Present-day  values  of  Phyfe  furniture  depend  en- 
tirely on  how  badly  the  collector  wants  them.  Mr. 
Halsey  has  paid  widely  varying  prices  for  his,  his 
chairs  averaging  $100  apiece  and  his  tables  $200, 
but  his  are  especially  fine  pieces.  A  fair  value 
would  be  $75  for  side  chairs,  $85  for  arm  chairs,  and 
$100  for  card  tables,  with  the  values  of  sofas  and 
dining  tables  running  up  as  high  as  $500.  But  as 
there  is  little  likelihood  of  there  being  any  exten- 
sive traffic  in  genuine  Phyfe  furniture,  these  figures 
have  but  little  significance.  Phyfe  furniture  is 
rarer — and  finer,  to  my  mind — than  Chippendale's. 

I  don't  know  that  any  one  has  ever  attempted  to 
counterfeit  Phyfe  furniture.  Perhaps  the  fakers 
have  not  realized  its  value.  It  was  seldom  marked 
with  Phyfe's  name,  and  other  American  Empire 
work  has  been  palmed  off  occasionally  as  that  of 
Duncan  Phyfe.  The  collector's  safeguard  is  an  in- 

[68] 


FURNITURE  OF  DUNCAN  PHYFE 

timate  knowledge  of  Phyfe's  handiwork;  no  other 
American  made  anything  comparable  to  it. 

A  reproduction  is  not  an  antique,  and  true  collec- 
tors scorn  reproductions;  but  authentic  Phyfe  pieces 
are  so  rare  and  his  style  so  worthy  of  preservation 
that  this  sentiment  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand 
in  the  way  of  its  perpetuation  through  the  medium 
of  fine  reproductions.  Only  in  this  way  can  the 
work  of  our  greatest  American  cabinet-maker  be 
brought  into  modern  American  homes.  Here  is  a 
great  opportunity  for  American  furniture  manufac- 
turers, provided  they  have  the  vision  and  skill  to  re- 
produce Phyfe's  work  and  not  murder  the  style  by 
inferior  execution. 


[69] 


M 


o 

1 » 


CHAPTER  IV 

AMERICAN    WINDSOR    CHAIRS 


^"  "^HE  Windsor  chair,  that  graceful,  honest 
product  of  eighteenth-century  America,  has 

1  at  last  come  into  its  own.  Time  was  when 
it  was  consigned  to  the  porch  or  the  kitchen,  or  even 
the  garret,  simply  because  it  was  not  mahogany. 
And  when  at  length  the  craze  for  everything  old 
caused  the  Windsors  to  be  brought  out  into  the  light 
of  day,  many  a  misguided  owner  sought  to  impart  to 
them  a  false  elegance  by  having  them  "done  over" 
and  given  a  "mahogany  finish." 

But  the  mahogany  fetish  is  losing  a  little  of  its 
power  over  us  and  we  are  coming  to  appreciate 
other  woods  and  painted  furniture,  provided  it  dis- 
plays true  grace  of  line,  beauty  of  proportion,  and 
the  charm  of  quaintness. 

The  Windsor  chair  is  nothing  if  not  graceful;  it 
is  hard  to  find  an  ugly  example.  It  is  generally 
comfortable  to  sit  in,  which  cannot  be  said  of  most 

[70] 


At  the  left,  hoop-back  armchair  with  carved  arms,  New  Jersey  type;  center,  a  good 
example  of  New  England  loop-back  armchair;  right,  the  later  and  less  grace- 
ful development  of  the  same,  with  the  bamboo  style  of  turning  and  the  arms 
joined  to  the  loop,  not  of  the  same  piece.  Bolles  Collection. 


An  unusually  good  pair  of  loop-back  side  chairs,  owned  by  the  author. 


AMERICAN  WINDSOR  CHAIRS 

of  its  contemporaries.  Its  construction  insures  a 
most  unusual  combination  of  lightness  and  strength. 
Already  the  humble  Windsor  is  frequently  to  be 
seen  cheek-by-jowl  with  aristocratic  Chippendales 
and  Hepplewhites,  and  the  variety  of  types  offers  a 
fascinating  field  for  the  collector.  Furthermore, 
the  Windsor  chair,  as  we  know  it  best,  was  a  dis- 
tinctly American  product,  and  therefore  makes  a  di- 
rect appeal  to  the  growing  interest  in  Americana. 

For  a  full  century  the  Windsor  enjoyed  wide- 
spread popularity  in  both  England  and  America  as 
the  common,  inexpensive,  every-day  chair  of  tavern, 
cottage,  and  farmhouse.  The  origin  of  both  name 
and  style  is  obscure.  The  oft-repeated  legend  has 
it  that  George  II  of  England,  while  hunting  near 
his  castle  at  Windsor,  was  caught  in  a  storm  and 
sought  shelter  in  a  shepherd's  hut.  Here  he  found 
a  chair,  the  like  of  which  he  had  never  seen  before, 
which  had  been  laboriously  fashioned  by  the  shep- 
herd with  his  pocket  knife.  The  King,  greatly 
pleased  with  its  grace  and  comfort,  had  it  copied, 
and  so  the  vogue  of  the  Windsor  began. 

Like  the  story  of  Dr.  Gibbon's  mahogany  candle- 
box  and  most  others  of  this  sort,  the  legend  should 
not  be  taken  too  seriously.  George  IPs  reign  began 
in  1727,  and  Windsors  appeared  in  this  country 

[73] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

very  soon  after  that  and  were  possibly  made  to  some 
extent  in  England  before  1725.  It  is  quite  prob- 
able, however,  that  the  form  was  first  conceived  in 
some  rural  neighborhood,  for  everything  about  it 
suggests  a  humble  origin.  The  Windsor  chair,  as 
we  know  it,  was  most  likely  the  result  of  a  gradual 
evolution,  having  its  beginning  somewhere  in  Eng- 
land during  the  first  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  reaching  its  highest  development  in  this 
country.  For  though  the  Windsor  chair  certainly 
achieved  some  popularity  in  England,  it  was  in 
America  that  it  enjoyed  its  widest  vogue  and  under- 
went the  greatest  variation  of  form.  English  writ- 
ers on  old  furniture  pay  scant  attention  to  the  Wind- 
sor, while  no  consideration  of  Americana  would  be 
complete  without  it. 

The  statement  is  commonly  made  that  the  vogue 
of  the  Windsor  in  America  extended  from  1725  to 
1825.  It  is  possible  that  there  may  have  been  some 
English  Windsors  here  as  early  as  1725*  but  I  have 
been  unable  to  discover  any  authentic  evidence  to 
prove  it.  Dr.  Irving  Whitall  Lyon,  author  of  "The 
Colonial  Furniture  of  New  England,"  published  in 
1891,  and  the  pioneer  investigator  in  this  field,  made 
a  careful  study  of  this  subject.  The  earliest  refer- 
ence he  found  to  Windsor  chairs  was  in  the  will  of 

[74] 


AMERICAN  WINDSOR  CHAIRS 

Governor  Patrick  Gordon  of  Pennsylvania,  who 
died  in  1736  and  in  whose  inventory  five  Windsor 
chairs  were  mentioned.  Governor  Gordon  came 
from  England  to  Philadelphia  in  1726,  bringing  his 
household  goods  with  him,  and  it  is  quite  possible 
that  the  Windsors  may  have  been  among  them. 
Windsors  are  also  mentioned  in  the  will  of  Hannah 
Hodge,  widow,  of  Philadelphia,  who  died  July  7, 
1736. 

After  that  date  references  to  Windsor  chairs  be- 
came more  and  more  frequent,  and  by  1 745  they  had 
apparently  become  popular  in  Philadelphia  and  their 
local  manufacture  may  have  begun  as  early  as  that. 
By  1760  the  vogue  for  Windsors  was  in  full  swing. 

The  earliest  mention  of  Windsors  in  New  York 
was  found  in  the  inventory  of  Abraham  Lodge,  at- 
torney, who  died  June  8,  1758.  Soon  afterward 
Philadelphia-made  Windsors  were  advertised  in 
New  York  newspapers.  They  rapidly  became  fash- 
ionable in  New  York,  supplanting  the  old  rush- 
bottomed  slat-back*  and  bannister-back  chairs  in 
popularity,  and  in  a  few  years  more  were  being  man- 
ufactured there. 

Windsor  chairs  were  not  made  in  Boston  till  about 
1786,  but  were  sent  there  from  Philadelphia  or  New 
York.  In  1769  two  Windsors  were  appraised  at  six 

[75] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

shillings  each  in  the  inventory  of  Captain  Daniel 
Malcolm  of  Boston,  and  in  1773  two  at  ten  shillings 
in  the  inventory  of  Samuel  Parker.  The  Independ- 
ent Chronicle  of  Boston  for  December  29,  1785, 
contained  an  advertisement  of  Philadelphia  Wind- 
sors on  sale  at  "Messrs.  Skillin's  carver's  shop  near 
Gov.  Hancock's  wharf."  In  the  same  paper  on 
April  13,  1786,  appeared  woodcuts  of  two  Windsor 
chairs  in  an  advertisement  of  Ebenezer  Stone's  shop 
— "Green  Windsor  chairs  of  all  kinds  equal  to  any 
imported  from  Philadelphia.  Chairs  taken  in  and 
painted." 

There  was  no  single  maker  of  Windsor  chairs 
whose  name  stands  out  preeminent  like  that  of  Dun- 
can Phyfe,  and  though  Philadelphia  was  first  in  the 
field  and  remained  the  center  of  the  industry,  the 
manufacture  of  Windsors  was  confined  to  no  single 
locality.  Like  clock  cases,  they  were  made  by  al- 
most every  village  cabinet-maker.  In  the  cities 
they  were  advertised  by  nearly  all  chairmakers,  but 
there  were  a  number  of  specialists  who  made  nothing 
but  Windsors. 

In  1773  Jedediah  Snowden  advertised  domestic 
Windsors  in  the  Philadelphia  Journal.  In  the 
Philadelphia  Directory  of  1785  the  names  of  eleven 
Windsor  chairmakers  appear,  besides  half  a  dozen 


L 


Extension  armchairs,  Bolles  Collection.  At  the  left,  an  unusually  tall  hoop-back; 
center,  fan-back  or  comb-back  armchair,  with  scroll  ears,  New  Jersey  style- 
fight,  a  more  graceful  form  of  the  same  with  carved  arms. 


At  the  left,  a  hoop-back  armchair  from  Massachusetts,  with  plain  arms,  owned  by 
the  author;  right,  writing-chair  in  the  Bolles  Collection,  like  a  low-back  Windsor 
with  comb-back  extension. 


AMERICAN  WINDSOR  CHAIRS 

other  chairmakers  and  a  number  of  cabinet- 
makers. 

The  manufacture  of  Windsor  chairs  in  Philadel- 
phia, however,  must  have  begun  at  least  as  early 
as  1760,  for  in  1763  Perry  Hayes  &  Sherbroke  in 
New  York  advertised  "Philadelphia-made  Windsor 
chairs." 

In  1768  a  joiner  in  Prince  Street,  New  York,  ad- 
vertised "Windsor  chairs  made  and  sold  by  William 
Gautier.  High-backed,  Low-backed,  Sack-backed, 
and  settees,  also  dining  and  low  chairs."  In  the 
New  York  Gazetteer  of  February  17,  1774,  Thomas 
Ash,  of  Broadway,  advertised  an  extensive  line  of 
Windsors.  The  first  New  York  City  Directory, 
published  in  1786,  gives  the  names  of  Thomas  Ash 
and  Lecock  &  Intle  as  Windsor  chairmakers,  besides 
several  other  chairmakers.  In  the  New  York  Direc- 
tory of  1789  appear  the  names  of  nine  Windsor 
chairmakers  and  ten  other  chairmakers. 

By  this  time  there  were  several  makers  of  Wind- 
sor chairs  in  Boston,  while  the  Baltimore  Directory 
of  1 796  gives  the  names  of  six  Windsor  chairmakers 
besides  the  other  manufacturers  of  furniture. 

In  Salem,  Massachusetts,  Samuel  Phippen  was 
making  Windsors  in  the  J8o?s.  In  1786  Stacy 
Stackbone,  according  to  an  advertisement  in  the 

[79] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Connecticut  C  our  ant  for  January  30  of  that  year, 
moved  from  New  York  and  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  Windsor  chairs  in  Hartford,  near  the  State 
House.  The  New  Haven  Gazette  for  February  22, 
1787,  shows  a  woodcut  of  Windsor  chairs  and  the 
advertisement  of  Alpheus  Hews  from  New  Jersey, 
maker  of  Windsor  chairs  and  settees,  garden  chairs, 
and  children's  chairs,  on  Chapel  Street.  According 
to  the  Connecticut  Gazette  of  November  14,  1788, 
William  Harris,  Jr.,  was  making  Windsors  in  New 
London.  The  United  States  Chronicle  of  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  printed  on  July  19,  1787,  the  adver- 
tisement of  Daniel  Lawrence — "Windsor  chairs. 
Neat,  elegant,  and  strong,  beautifully  painted  after 
the  Philadelphia  mode,  warranted  of  good  seasoned 
materials  so  firmly  put  together  as  not  to  deceive  the 
Purchaser  by  an  untimely  coming  to  Pieces." 

The  foregoing  references  indicate  the  extent  to 
which  the  industry  had  grown  a  few  years  after  the 
Revolutionary  War.  The  major  portion  of  the 
Windsors  found  to-day  are  of  that  period.  The 
fashion  declined  soon  after  1800,  though  Windsors 
were  made  and  sold  in  considerable  quantities  for 
twenty  years  thereafter,  special  advertisements  ap- 
pearing in  New  York  papers  as  late  as  1818. 

Windsor  chairs  were  never  made  of  the  more  ele- 

[80] 


At  the  left,  New  England  loop-back  armchair,  with  comb-back  extension,  back 
braces,  and  bamboo  turning;  center,  a  very  late  and  awkward  development  of 
the  comb-back  rocker;  right,  child's  comb-back  or  fan-back  armchair.  New 
Jersey  style.  Bolles  Collection. 


At  the  left,  a  good  example  of  the  fan-back  side  chair,  New  Jersey  style;  right,  fan- 
back  armchair,  New  Jersey  style,  like  a  low -back  Windsor  with  fan-back  exten- 
sion. Bolles  Collection. 


AMERICAN  WINDSOR  CHAIRS 

gant  cabinet  woods,  and  it  is  a  mistake  to  have  them 
so  treated  in  renovation.  They  were  usually  made 
of  two  or  three  kinds  of  wood  in  the  same  piece — the 
hoop  of  the  back  of  hickory;  spindles  and  arms  ash 
or  hickory;  legs  oak,  hickory,  or  maple;  seats  pine, 
whitewood,  beech,  etc. 

Windsors  were  almost  invariably  painted.  Green 
seems  to  have  been  the  popular  color  at  first — usually 
dark  green  or  apple  green — but  black  chairs  are  to 
be  found  to-day  more  often  than  green.  Some  were 
undoubtedly  painted  to  suit  the  purchaser — usually 
red  or  yellow.  Of  course  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
find  several  coats  of  paint  on  old  specimens,  black 
frequently  hiding  the  original  red  or  green.  I  have 
never  known  of  a  Windsor  that  was  originally 
painted  white  and  doubt  if  they  were  ever  finished 
natural  in  this  country.  Occasionally  a  simple  deco- 
ration is  to  be  found,  such  as  a  line  of  yellow  on  the 
black,  but  that  was  usually  a  later  addition. 

Though  American  Windsor  chairs  vary  widely  in 
form,  from  the  loop-back  side  chair  to  the  comb- 
back  rocker,  their  type  characteristics  are  unmistak- 
able. The  most  noticeable  of  these  are  the  slender, 
round,  upright  spokes  or  spindles  in  the  backs,  vary- 
ing in  number  but  in  general  presenting  the  effect  of 
a  graceful  outline  filled  with  parallel  lines.  The 

[83] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

chair  backs  are  slanted  backward,  are  straight  from 
top  to  seat,  and  curved  laterally  to  fit  the  back.  The 
arms  of  the  armchairs  also  slant  outward. 

The  spindles  are  tapering  or  slightly  bulging  on 
the  best  examples;  straight,  cylindrical,  and  less 
slender  on  the  poorer  ones.  The  outer  spindles  of 
the  arms  and  of  the  backs  of  the  fan-back  chairs  were 
turned  more  or  less  elaborately  on  a  lathe;  the  hick- 
ory spindles  were  usually  not  turned,  but  cut  out 
with  a  spokeshave  and  rounded  with  a  file,  so  that 
they  present  a  pleasing  lack  of  absolute  uniformity. 

The  seats  were  made  of  a  single  piece  of  plank, 
varying  somewhat  in  outline,  and  hollowed  out  more 
or  less  in  the  fashion  known  as  saddle-seat. 

All  this  shaping,  curving,  and  outward  slanting 
made  for  both  grace  and  comfort.  The  placing  of 
the  legs  was  a  matter  of  strength  as  well  as  design. 
They  were  set  into  the  seats  at  some  little  distance 
in  from  the  corners  and  were  sharply  raked  or 
slanted  outwards,  the  feet  in  the  best  examples  ex- 
tending beyond  the  line  of  the  seat.  The  legs  were 
lathe  turned,  usually  in  vase  forms.  The  tendency 
in  some  of  the  later  work  to  reduce  all  the  turning 
to  a  conventionalized  bamboo  pattern  indicates  a 
lazy  habit  in  the  maker. 

The  underbracing  consists  almost  invariably  of 


Typical   English  Windsors  with  pierced  splats.      Compare  the  lines  and  proportions 
with  those  of  American  chairs. 


A  good  example  of  the  late  Windsor  settee  from  Pennsylvania.     Owned  by 
Mr.  David  B.,  Missemer. 


AMERICAN  WINDSOR  CHAIRS 

three  bulb-turned  pieces,  two  connecting  the  front 
with  the  back  legs,  and  the  third  joining  these  two 
at  the  middle. 

In  general,  though  light  and  airy  in  appearance, 
the  Windsor  chair  is  exceedingly  strong  and  well 
braced.  The  spindles  were  driven  into  holes  in  the 
seat  and  fitted  into  holes  in  the  hoop  or  the  arms  at 
the  top.  The  legs  were  driven  clear  through  the 
seats,  secured  by  means  of  fox  wedges,  and  shaved 
off  flush,  the  underbraces  having  first  been  fitted. 
The  result  is  a  rigidity  of  construction  that  has,  in  a 
multitude  of  cases,  defied  dampness,  steam  heat,  and 
the  weight  of  a  century.  Windsor  chairs  were  ob- 
viously hand-made,  a  fact  which  marks  them,  in  the 
eyes  of  those  who  appreciate  form  and  the  evidences 
of  true  craftsmanship,  as  far  superior  to  later  imita- 
tions and  modern  machine-made  spindle-back  chairs 
of  all  sorts. 

A  careful  analysis  of  Windsor  forms  has  never,  to 
my  knowledge,  appeared  in  print.  In  fact,  the  only 
man  I  know  of  who  has  made  an  analytical  study  of 
the  subject  is  Mr.  J.  B.  Kerfoot,  who  has  accumu- 
lated a  large  and  interesting  collection  of  Windsors 
at  his  home  in  Freehold,  New  Jersey.  I  am  in- 
debted to  him  for  the  suggestions  leading  to  the  fol- 
lowing classification,  which,  though  brief  and  incom- 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

plete,  may  serve  to  clarify  our  somewhat  jumbled 
notions  regarding  Windsors  and  may  perhaps  lead 
some  enthusiast  further  into  a  fascinating  field  of 
investigation. 

American  Windsors  may  be  divided  roughly  into 
three  groups — New  Jersey,  New  England,  and 
Pennsylvania  German.  The  New  Jersey  group  in- 
cludes the  work  of  the  prolific  Philadelphia  makers 
which  found  its  chief  market  in  New  Jersey  rather 
than  in  Pennsylvania.  The  chairs  made  in  Trenton 
follow  the  Philadelphia  lines,  as,  in  fact,  do  a  good 
many  of  those  made  in  New  York.  The  New  Eng- 
land types,  which  found  their  way  often  into  New 
York  State,  display,  in  the  main,  certain  common 
characteristics,  in  spite  of  the  differences  to  be  found 
between  the  work  of  the  makers  of  Connecticut  and 
of  eastern  Massachusetts.  The  chairs  found  on 
Long  Island  belong  more  often  to  the  Connecticut 
than  to  the  New  Jersey  group. 

American  Windsors  may  again  be  arranged  in 
seven  general  classes:  (i)  the  New  England  or 
loop-back  side  chair;  (2)  the  New  England  or  loop- 
back  armchair;  (3)  the  hoop-back  armchair;  (4) 
the  fan-back;  (5)  the  comb-back;  (6)  the  low-back; 
(7)  the  miscellaneous  variations.  There  has  been 
a  considerable  confusion  of  terms  in  all  writing  on 

[88] 


AMERICAN  WINDSOR  CHAIRS 

this  subject;  I  propose  to  employ  those  which  seem 
most  definitely  descriptive.  The  term  loop-back,  I 
must  confess,  is  my  own  invention. 

The  first  type  is  the  simple  side  chair,  with  shaped 
seat  and  with  the  outline  of  the  back  in  the  form  of  a 
loop.  It  is  the  commonest  type  to  be  found  in  New 
England  and  on  Long  Island  to-day,  but  is  infre- 
quently seen  in  New  Jersey  or  Pennsylvania. 

The  second  is  simply  the  armchair  of  this  species, 
with  the  loop  carried  forward  to  form  the  arms. 
This,  also,  was  a  New  England  product  and  is  one 
of  the  most  graceful  of  all  the  Windsors,  though  not 
as  strong  as  the  extension  or  hoop-back  form.  It  is 
also  known,  in  some  localities,  as  the  fiddle-string 
armchair.  In  a  later  form  the  loop  is  carried  to  the 
seat  as  in  the  side  chair  and  the  arms  are  set  on  at 
right  angles. 

The  hoop-back  is  the  commonest  and  most  useful 
of  the  armchairs.  The  back  is  cut  in  two  horizon- 
tally by  a  semi-circular  piece  which,  extending  for- 
ward, forms  the  arms.  From  this  a  hoop-shaped 
piece,  usually  round,  extends  upward,  forming  the 
top  of  the  back.  The  spindles  pass  through  holes  in 
the  middle  piece,  joining  the  hoop  to  the  seat. 

This  form  apparently  originated  in  Philadelphia 
and  belongs  to  the  New  Jersey  group,  being  intro- 

[89] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

duced  into  New  England  later.  It  was  perhaps  the 
kind  which  Gautier  advertised  as  sack-backed.  In 
the  majority  of  cases  the  ends  of  the  arms  are  flat 
and  merely  rounded  off,  but  the  most  valuable  ex- 
amples have  the  ends  carved  in  a  scroll  resembling 
a  closed  hand.  It  is  doubtful  if  this  carved  form 
was  ever  made  in  New  England,  though  probably 
imported  there  from  Philadelphia.  There  is,  in 
fact,  a  considerable  variation  in  this  one  type,  par- 
ticularly in  the  height  of  the  hoop. 

At  some  time  after  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  the  hoop-back  Windsor  was  revived  in  Phil- 
adelphia and  large  numbers  were  made  and  sold, 
especially  as  office  chairs.  But  the  form  was  heavier 
and  is  easily  distinguished.  Most  of  the  modem 
reproductions  are  also  of  this  type. 

The  fan-backs  have  a  horizontal  curved  or  bow- 
shaped  piece  at  the  top,  from  which  the  spindles 
slant  slightly  inward  toward  the  seat,  the  outer  ones 
being  heavier  and  turned.  The  top  piece  extends 
slightly  beyond  these  and  ends  in  curved  ears  which, 
generally  speaking,  were  made  plain  in  New  Eng- 
land and  were  carved  in  the  form  of  a  scroll  in  Phil- 
adelphia and  New  Jersey.  Arms  are  occasionally 
found  on  fan-back  chairs,  with  a  dividing  piece  as 
in  the  hoop-backs. 

[90] 


Examples  of  late  Pennsylvania  forms,  owned  by  Mr.   D.  B.   Missemer. 


A  good  example  of  the  low-back  Windsor,  owned  by  Mr.  Renwick  C.  Hurry. 


AMERICAN  WINDSOR  CHAIRS 

The  comb-back  Windsor  is  simply  one  of  the 
other  forms  with  a  head-rest  added  in  the  form  of  a 
miniature  fan-back,  or  like  an  old-fashioned  back- 
comb. This  type  seems  to  have  been  confined  to  no 
single  section. 

The  least  graceful  form  of  the  Windsor,  but  one 
of  the  oldest,  is  the  low-back.  In  this  a  single, 
heavy,  semi-circular  piece  forms  the  arms  and  the  top 
of  the  back  on  the  same  level,  much  as  in  the  round- 
about chair.  Sometimes  the  back  is  raised  an  inch 
or  two  by  the  addition  of  another  piece.  The  seat 
is  broad  and  the  whole  effect  squatty.  A  variation 
of  the  low-back  has  the  addition  of  a  fan-back,  rarely 
a  hoop-back,  extension  above,  which  scarcely  adds 
to  its  beauty.  There  is  some  reason  for  believing 
that  the  commoner  hoop-back  armchair  was  a  devel- 
opment of  this  variation. 

All  other  forms  are  merely  local  departures  from 
these.  Sometimes  on  both  fan-back  and  loop-back 
chairs,  a  portion  of  the  seat  is  extended  back  a  few 
inches,  from  which  two  divergent  spindles  extend  to 
the  top  of  the  back,  as  braces,  adding  at  once  to  the 
strength  and  the  attractiveness  of  the  chair.  Oc- 
casionally a  broad  rest  is  added  to  the  right-hand 
arm  of  one  of  the  armchairs,  forming  a  writing-chair. 
Sometimes  there  is  a  drawer  in  this  rest,  and  one 

[93] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

under  the  seat,  and  often  an  additional  rest  for  a 
candle. 

The  Pennsylvania  group  includes  most  of  the 
Philadelphia  or  New  Jersey  forms  and  some  others, 
rendered  somewhat  heavier  and  occasionally  more 
ornate  to  suit  the  tastes  of  the  Pennsylvania  Ger- 
mans of  that  day.  The  ears  of  the  fan-backs,  for 
example,  are  sometimes  quite  fanciful,  while  some 
fan-backs  found  near  Manheim  show  no  ears  at  all, 
but  merely  a  sharp  angle. 

During  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  styles  underwent  radical  changes,  various  rectan- 
gular forms  being  developed  in  spindle-back  chairs 
and  settees. 

The  history  of  the  rocking-chair  is  yet  to  be  writ- 
ten. According  to  some  writers  rockers  began  to 
appear  in  this  country  before  1750,  and  Windsor 
rockers  soon  after  the  Revolution.  Others  assert 
that  Windsor  rocking-chairs  were  not  made  until 
about  1810  and  that  most  of  the  so-called  Windsor 
rocking-chairs  are  simply  old  armchairs  cut  down 
and  fitted  with  rockers.  Certainly  none  of  the  early 
advertisements  or  inventories  included  any  mention 
of  rocking-chairs. 

The  first  rockers  were  merely  short  boards  cut 
straight  across  the  top  and  rounded  on  the  bottom. 

[94] 


AMERICAN  WINDSOR  CHAIRS 

Then  the  top  side  was  shaped,  and  later  the  rocker 
was  fashioned  much  as  that  of  to-day,  except  that  it 
extended  only  four  or  five  inches  back  of  the  rear 
legs.  It  was  not  until  1820  or  so  that  the  discovery 
was  made  that  rockers  lengthened  behind  increased 
the  safety  and  comfort  of  the  chair.  During  the 
decade  following  that  astonishing  discovery  the 
popularity  of  the  rocking-chair  spread  rapidly. 
Windsor  rockers  were  made  which  soon  developed 
into  a  variety  of  special  rocking-chair  forms,  includ- 
ing the  famous  Boston  rocker. 

The  styles  of  the  middle  period  of  Windsor  chair- 
making  extended  well  into  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  with  so  little  change  that  it  is  not  often  possible 
to  judge  of  the  exact  age  of  a  chair  by  its  style. 
The  cruder  workmanship  of  a  rural  chairmaker  often 
lends  a  false  suggestion  of  greater  age.  But  a  study 
of  the  styles  is  interesting  for  its  own  sake,  and  there 
are  fascinating  by-paths  of  research  open  to  the  in- 
vestigator that  I  have  not  even  touched  upon,  such 
as  the  various  patterns  in  turning,  the  grooves  at  the 
back  of  the  seats,  etc.,  all  of  them  indications  of  indi- 
viduality and  offering  possible  clues  to  the  identity 
of  the  makers. 

If  space  permitted,  an  interesting  chapter  could 
be  written  about  the  history  of  famous  Windsors — 

[95] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

of  the  writing-chair  with  revolving  seat,  now  owned 
by  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  Philadelphia, 
in  which  Thomas  Jefferson  is  said  to  have  signed  or 
written  the  Declaration  of  Independence;  of  Wash- 
ington's writing-chair  and  fan-back  armchair  and 
the  thirty  Windsors  that  stood  on  the  veranda  at 
Mount  Vernon;  of  Rev.  Ezra  Ripley's  comb-back 
writing-chair,  afterwards  used  by  Ralph  Waldo 
Emerson  and  by  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  and  now 
owned  by  the  Concord  Antiquarian  Society,  together 
with  a  number  of  other  historic  Windsors. 

Just  a  word  in  passing  regarding  the  English 
Windsors.  Those  most  commonly  seen  have  the 
familiar  rounded  back  and  spindles,  but  with  a 
pierced  splat  in  the  center  of  the  back.  While  not 
all  English  Windsors  had  this  splat,  it  is  one  of  the 
distinguishing  marks,  for  it  was  never,  so  far  as  I 
have  discovered,  used  by  American  makers.  But  we 
do  not  need  to  depend  upon  that.  The  whole  effect 
of  the  English  chair  is  heavier  and  less  graceful. 
The  back  is  less  pleasantly  loop-shaped;  the  legs  are 
more  nearly  perpendicular  and  are  set  nearer  to  the 
corners  of  the  seats;  the  underbraces  are  placed 
higher  than  on  American-made  Windsors.  Never- 
theless, English  Windsors  are  enjoying  somewhat  of 
a  vogue  among  American  collectors  and  are  being 

[96] 


At  the  left,  comb-back  rocker,  owned  by  Mrs.  Elizabeth  H.  Marks;  right,  child's 
hoop-back  rocker  and  Pennsylvania  fan-back  side  chair,  owned  by  Mr.  D.  B. 
Missemer. 


Hoop-back  armchair  with  rockers  added  and  a  late  form  of  Windsor  rocker,  owned  by 
Mrs.  Elizabeth  H.   Marks. 


AMERICAN  WINDSOR  CHAIRS 

brought  over  in  considerable  quantities.  Some  of 
them  are  undoubtedly  very  fine  in  design  and  su- 
perior in  finish  to  the  American  chairs,  but  generally 
they  exhibit  less  evidence  of  imagination  and  feeling 
for  form. 

The  English  chairs  include  the  prototypes  of  our 
loop-back  side  chairs,  hoop-back  armchairs,  and  low- 
back  Windsors,  with  and  without  the  fan-back  exten- 
sion. The  American  makers  developed  more  varia- 
tions than  did  the  English,  and,  in  the  main, 
improved  upon  their  designs. 

These  English  Windsors  can  be  picked  up  in 
Great  Britain  at  £1  to  £5  each,  sometimes  in  sets  of 
six  or  more;  in  this  country  they  are  worth  $25  to 
$50  apiece.  Not  long  ago  a  New  York  dealer  asked 
$100  for  an  English  Windsor  with  the  three  royal 
plumes  in  the  splat,  and  got  his  price. 

In  spite  of  the  recent  awakening  of  interest  in 
American  Windsors,  so  many  of  them  have  been  dis- 
covered and  placed  on  the  market  that  the  values 
have  dropped  rather  than  increased,  except  on  the 
rarer  forms. 

The  low-backed  Windsors  have  been  bringing 
higher  prices  than  they  deserve.  At  a  recent  sale  at 
the  American  Art  Association  galleries,  New  York, 
$57.50  was  paid  for  a  low-back,  while  a  neighbor  of 

[99] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

mine  picked  up  almost  the  duplicate  of  it  on  Long 
Island  for  $1.50. 

Statements  made  to  me  by  various  collectors  and 
dealers  have  led  me  to  the  following  conclusions  as 
to  present  values:  New  England  loop-back  side 
chairs  are  considered  worth  from  $8  to  $10  apiece, 
according  to  style.  My  own  pair  I  got  at  an 
auction  in  Hempstead,  Long  Island,  for  $1.35,  and 
I  am  inclined  to  think  the  above  figures  too  high. 
Fan-back  side  chairs  are  worth  $10  to  $12,  according 
to  some  collectors;  armchairs  of  various  sorts,  $10 
to  $15;  the  rarer  or  more  graceful  forms  would 
doubtless  bring  $20  or  $25,  and  comb-backs  $35  or 
$40.  The  later  variations  of  the  Windsor  are 
worth  $5  or  $10  apiece,  and  settees  $15  to  $25. 
Dealers  in  cities  like  New  York  ask — and  obtain — 
rather  higher  prices  than  these. 

A  rather  more  detailed  schedule  of  values  has 
been  furnished  me  by  a  Windsor  collector  of  long 
experience  and  conservative  tendencies.  Much  de- 
pends, he  says,  on  style  and  finish,  on  the  location  of 
the  piece  in  relation  to  ready  markets,  etc.  The  fol- 
lowing he  considers  fair  dealers'  selling  prices  for 
good  specimens  of  the  principal  types  of  Wind- 
sors: 

[100] 


1 


AMERICAN  WINDSOR  CHAIRS 

Common  New  England  loop-back 

side  chairs,  $  3. 

Very  fine  loop-backs,  5. 

The  same  with  back  braces,  15. 

New  England  loop-back  armchairs,  15. 

The  same,  with  back  braces,  25. 

New   England  fan-backs,  7.50 

Finer  examples  of  the  same  10.       to  15. 

The   same,   with  back  braces,  25.       to  40. 

Plain   Jersey   fan-backs,  15. 

Comb-backs,  all  sorts,  30.       to  60. 

The  Windsor  chair  is  one  of  the  few  things  still  to 
be  picked  up  about  the  countryside  by  the  sharp-eyed 
collector,  and  he  can  afford  to  be  a  bit  discriminating. 
Let  him  look  for  deep  and  well  designed  turning,  for 
widely  raked  legs,  for  side  chairs  with  the  seats  well 
shaped  and  cut  in  deeply  at  the  sides,  for  just  the 
right  slant  to  back  and  arms,  and  for  grace  of  line 
and  proportion.  These  are  the  things  that  count  in 
the  Windsor  chair. 


[103] 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    CLOCKMAKERS    OF    CONNECTICUT 

A  HUNDRED   years   ago*  there   lived   and 
worked  in  the  State  of  Connecticut  a  little 
group  of  clockmakers  who  were  destined 
to  leave  a  distinct  impress  on  the  industrial  history 
of  their  country.     Through  their  native  ingenuity 
they  discovered  how  to  make  clocks  inexpensively 
and  so  to  place  them  in  large  numbers  within  the 
reach  of  our  growing  population. 

Austere,  industrious,  shrewd  old  Yankees  were 
these  clockmakers  of  Connecticut,  for  the  most  part 
self-made  men,  achieving  success  through  the  Puri- 
tan virtues  of  perseverance,  long-headedness,  and 
sobriety.  Their  work  was  excellent  mechanically 
and  by  no  means  lacking  in  a  certain  quaint  artistic 
charm. 

While  clocks  were  made  in  Connecticut  as  early  as 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  perhaps 
before  that,  it  was  not  until  after  the  Revolutionary 

[104] 


Clock  made  by  Daniel  Burnap  in 
1799-  Now  owned  by  Miss  Mary  W. 
Andrews,  Hartford,  Conn. 


Tall  clock  made  by  Silas  Hoadley  after 
1814,  with  a  painted  metal  dial 
bearing  the  maker's  name. 


CLOCKMAKERS  OF  CONNECTICUT 

War  that  the  industry  reached  noteworthy  propor- 
tions. The  group  about  whom  interest  centers 
worked  chiefly  in  Litchfield  County  and  consists  of  a 
line  of  teachers  and  pupils  beginning  with  Thomas 
Harland  and  running  down  to  the  sons  of  Eli  Terry 
and  Seth  Thomas. 

Harland  learned  his  trade  in  England  and  came 
to  Boston  in  1773  in  the  ship  from  which  the  tea  was 
thrown  overboard  in  Boston  Harbor.  Very  likely 
he  and  Paul  Revere  brushed  elbows  on  Beacon  Hill. 
He  settled  in  Norwich,  Connecticut,  later  in  the  same 
year  and  opened  a  clockmaking  shop  which  he  con- 
ducted until  his  death  in  1807.  Here  he  made 
"spring,  musical,  and  plain  clocks;  church  clocks; 
regulators,  etc.,"  and  engraved  and  finished  clock 
faces  for  the  trade.  His  clocks,  like  most  others  of 
the  period,  had  brass  works,  with  a  pendulum  forty 
inches  long,  swinging  every  second.  They  were 
made  to  stand  in  cases  about  six  feet  tall,  though 
sometimes  they  were  hung  without  cases  and  were 
then  called  wag-on-the-wall  clocks.  It  was  custom- 
ary for  peddlers  about  the  country  to  sell  these  clocks 
without  cases,  the  latter  often  being  built  by  local 
cabinet-makers.  The  cases,  therefore,  vary  widely 
and  are  seldom  an  indication  of  the  make  of  the 
works. 

[107] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Harland's  fame  as  a  master  clockmaker  spread 
throughout  the  Colonies  and  he  received  into  his  shop 
numerous  apprentices  who  subsequently  went  forth 
to  ply  their  trade  in  various  parts  of  New  England. 
One  of  these  apprentices  was  Eli  Terry,  who  became, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  Seth  Thomas,  the  most 
famous  clockmaker  in  Connecticut. 

Another  early  clockmaker  who  should  be  men- 
tioned at  this  point  was  Daniel  Burnap.  Very  little 
is  known  about  him  except  that  he  made  clocks  be- 
tween 1780  and  1800  at  Andover,  Massachusetts, 
and  at  Hartford,  Plymouth,  and  East  Windsor,  Con- 
necticut. His  clocks  had  tall  cases  and  brass  works, 
and  often  moon  phases  and  calendar  attachments. 
He  was  a  skilled  engraver,  and  his  silvered  dials 
were  often  beautifully  etched.  One  characteristic 
of  Burnap's  clock  faces  was  the  absence  of  spandrels 
at  the  corners.  It  was  from  him  that  Eli  Terry  is 
said  to  have  learned  the  art  of  engraving. 

"The  man  above  all  others  in  his  day  for  the  wood 
clock  was  Eli  Terry,"  writes  Chauncey  Jerome 
in  his  "History  of  the  American  Clock  Business," 
published  in  1860,  when  Jerome  was  sixty-seven 
years  old.  Terry  was  born  April  13,  1772,  at  East 
Windsor,  now  South  Windsor,  Connecticut.  He 
was  an  ingenious  youth  and  he  made  a  few  old- 

[108] 


CLOCKMAKERS  OF  CONNECTICUT 

fashioned,  hang-up  clocks  before  he  was  twenty- 
one. 

It  was  probably  during  his  apprenticeship  to  Har- 
land  and  Burnap,  or  immediately  after,  that  he  built 
his  first  tall  clock,  in  1792.  The  case  was  graceful 
but  not  elaborate,  and  the  silvered  dial  was  engraved 
with  his  name.  This  clock  is  now  owned  by  his 
descendants  and  is  still  running. 

In  1793  he  moved  to  Northbury,  then  part  of 
Watertown,  and  began  the  manufacture  of  clocks  on 
his  own  account.  Here  he  married  Eunice  Warner, 
who  died  December  15,  1839,  and  by  whom  he  had 
nine  children.  In  November,  1840,  he  married 
Harriet  Peck,  a  widow,  who  bore  him  two  sons. 

At  first  business  was  dull  in  Northbury,  and  Terry 
eked  out  a  living  by  repairing  clocks  and  watches, 
engraving  on  metal,  and  selling  spectacles.  His  first 
clocks  were  made  by  hand,"  partly  with  jack-knife 
and  saw,  and  partly  by  means  of  a  hand  engine  for 
cutting  the  wheels.  Later  he  introduced  water 
power  into  his  shop,  being  the  first  clockmaker  to 
make  the  venture. 

His  first  clocks  were  made  with  both  brass  and 
wooden  works  and  sold  for  about  $25  apiece  for  the 
movement  and  dial  alone.  But  he  soon  discon- 
tinued the  brass  works,  finding  the  wood  as  reliable 

[109] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

and,  because  cheaper,  more  salable.  Some  of  these 
early  clocks  had  silver-washed  brass  dials. 

Probably  the  first  clock  patent  ever  issued  in  this 
country  was  taken  out  by  Terry  in  1797.  In  that 
year  he  also  invented  a  clock  registering  the  differ- 
ence between  mean  and  apparent  time. 

About  1800  he  engaged  two  assistants  and  began 
to  start  his  clocks  a  dozen  at  a  time.  Two  or  three 
times  a  year  he  started  out  with  horse  and  wagon  and 
peddled  them  about  the  country.  Tall  clocks  were 
then  selling  at  prices  ranging  from  $18  to  $70.  The 
higher  priced  ones  had  a  dial  and  hand  for  seconds, 
displayed  the  moon's  phases,  and  included  handsome 
cases. 

Early  in  1807  Terry  sold  his  old  plant  to  Heman 
Clark,  an  apprentice,  and  bought  an  old  mill,  with 
water  power,  at  Greystone,  in  the  southern  part  of 
Plymouth.  He  obtained  a  contract  from  a  firm  in 
Waterbury  to  deliver  4,000  clocks  in  three  years  at 
$4  apiece.  They  were  to  be  3O-hour  clocks,  with 
wooden  works,  one-second  pendulum,  dial  and 
hands  included,  the  purchasers  furnishing  the  ma- 
terials. 

It  was  a  big  undertaking  in  those  days,  but  Terry 
carried  it  through  successfully  and  it  marked  the  be- 
ginning of  his  prosperity.  In  1808  he  made  the  first 

[HO] 


cS 


2-3 
<<  5' 

•-TO 

5' 
$ 

3 

I 

•< 


CLOCKMAKERS  OF  CONNECTICUT 

500  of  these  clocks — the  largest  number  ever  started 
at  one  time  in  one  shop. 

By  1809  the  business  was  the  largest  in  the  coun- 
try. In  1810  Terry  sold  out  to  two  of  his  em- 
ployees, Seth  Thomas  and  Silas  Hoadley,  and  re- 
moved to  Plymouth  Hollow. 

By  this  time  the  price  for  the  ordinary  wooden 
clock  works  had  dropped  to  $10  and  finally  to  $5, 
and  Terry  began  to  cast  about  for  a  new  line. 

Most  of  the  clocks  of  that  day  were  either  eight- 
day  brass  clocks  or  thirty-hour  wooden  clocks,  with 
pendulums  beating  the  seconds.  A  few  thirty-hour 
brass  clocks  were  made  with  a  shorter  pendulum, 
beating  half  seconds.  These  were  fairly  expensive, 
and  because  they  were  adapted  to  short  cases  were 
called  shelf  clocks. 

While  at  work  on  his  three-year  contract,  Terry 
conceived  the  idea  of  a  thirty-hour  wooden  clock 
with  half-seconds  pendulum,  which  would  be  much 
cheaper  than  the  brass  shelf  clocks.  He  made  sev- 
eral hundred  of  these  clocks  without  dials,  but  with 
the  figures  painted  on  the  glass  front. 

But  Terry  was  not  satisfied  with  this  clock  and  dis- 
continued its  manufacture  after  a  year.  It  was  not 
until  1814  that  he  perfected  a  shelf  clock  to  his  sat- 
isfaction. The  new  movement  included  several 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

radically  new  inventions  making  for  economy  of 
space.  It  revolutionized  the  clock-making  industry 
and  sounded  the  knell  of  the  more  costly  brass  shelf 
clocks.  The  new  type  of  works  was  not  patented. 
It  was  taken  up  rapidly  by  other  makers  and  re- 
mained in  vogue  for  twenty-five  years  until  the  use 
of  sheet  metal  came  in  about  1837. 

In  connection  with  the  new  movement  Terry  in- 
troduced in  1814  his  "pillar  and  scroll-top  case," 
which  he  patented.  It  was  a  rectangular  case,  about 
twenty-five  inches  high,  with  small  feet  and  a  top 
cut  in  a  scroll  pattern.  At  the  sides  of  the  front 
were  small  round  pillars,  twenty-one  inches  long, 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  bottom  and 
three-eighths  at  the  top,  resting  on  a  square  base  and 
surmounted  by  a  turned  cap.  The  dial  was  about 
eleven  inches  across,  with  a  panel  below  painted  on 
glass.  Spandrels  were  painted  at  the  corners  of  the 
face. 

This  clock  became  at  once  immensely  popular. 
Seth  Thomas  paid  $1,000  for  the  right  to  manufac- 
ture it,  and  he  and  Terry  each  made  about  $6,000 
the  first  year.  Later  the  output  was  doubled.  The 
retail  price  was  $15  each. 

In  addition  to  this  clock,  Terry  made  other 
mantel  clocks,  both  plain  and  elegant.  He  also 


Tall  clock  made  by  Eli  Terry  in  1794- 
No'v  owned  by  Mr.  A.  C.  Bunnell. 
Ricley  Park,  Pa. 


An  early  tall  clock  with  wooden 
works  made  by  Terry.  Owned  by 
Mrs.  James  W.  Cook  of  Providence. 


CLOCKMAKERS  OF  CONNECTICUT 

made  brass  works,  adjusted  with  extreme  care,  which 
he  sold  as  regulators  to  watchmakers  for  $100  to 
$200  each. 

Tower  clocks  were  also  part  of  his  trade.  These 
were  of  excellent  quality,  as  a  rule,  and  were  af- 
fected as  little  as  possible  by  the  weather.  Most  of 
them  were  operated  by  separate  sets  of  weights  for 
chronometer,  dial  wheels,  and  striker.  The  clock 
which  is  still  telling  time  from  the  gable  of  the  Con- 
gregational Church  in  Terryville  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  of  Terry's  tower  clocks.  It  was  a  gift  to 
the  church,  which  was  built  in  1835. 

Another  tower  clock  was  built  by  Terry  for  the 
city  of  New  Haven.  It  was  placed  in  the  Centre 
Church  on  the  Green.  It  told  the  mean  time  while 
the  Yale  College  clock  told  apparent  time.  This 
led  to  confusion  and  a  lively  controversy. 

In  1830  Terry  invented  a  new  form  of  gravity 
escapement,  and  he  continued  active  as  an  inventor 
and  designer  the  rest  of  his  life.  It  is  not  too  much 
to  say  of  him  that  this  shrewd,  ingenious  Yankee  did 
as  much  toward  the  advancement  of  clockmaking  as 
any  other  one  man  in  history.  At  least,  he  was  the 
father  of  the  modern  cheap  clock  which  Seth  Thomas 
did  so  much  to  popularize. 

In  1838  and  1839  Terry  built  two  houses  in  that 

[117] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

portion  of  Plymouth  which  later  became  known  as 
Terryville.  In  one  of  these  he  lived  until  his  death, 
which  occurred  on  February  24,  1852,  at  the  age  of 
eighty. 

In  1814,  when  Terry  started  his  big  contract  he 
took  two  of  his  sons  in  with  him  and  taught  them 
the  trade.  Henry  continued  the  business  at  Ply- 
mouth Hollow  until  about  1840,  when  he  turned  to 
the  manufacture  of  woolen  goods.  The  other  son, 
Eli,  Jr.,  started  a  shop  of  his  own  in  1826,  when  he 
was  twenty-five,  and  became  the  wealthy  and  hon- 
ored founder  of  Terryville. '  A  third  son,  Silas,  was 
less  successful  in  a  business  way,  but  was  nearly  as 
great  an  inventor  as  his  father. 

Seth  Thomas,  who  was  even  more  of  a  self-made 
man  than  Eli  Terry,  was  born  at  Wolcott,  Connecti- 
cut, August  19,  1785,  the  son  of  James  and  Martha 
Thomas.  His  education  was  limited  to  the  meager 
advantages  of  the  district  school,  and  while  still  a 
youth  he  served  his  apprenticeship  as  carpenter  and 
joiner.  For  a  time  he  worked  on  the  construction 
of  the  long  wharf  at  New  Haven. 

When  he  became  of  age  he  returned  to  Litchfield 
County  with  his  kit  of  tools  and  a  small  sum  of 
money.  He  soon  found  work  as  a  joiner  in  Eli 
Terry's  factory,  making  clock  cases  and  later  assem- 


Face  and  works  of  an  early  wooden  clock  by  Eli  Terry. 


A  gepd  ^ygrrppjr  -o?  the" 
top"    style"    ma'de'    by    bbtn'  "Te^rry" 
Thomas. 


A  later  type  of  shelf  clock  made  by  Setb 
Thomas.  Owned  by  Mr.  L.  A.  Klein, 
Ridiey  Park,  Pa. 


CLOCKMAKERS  OF  CONNECTICUT 

bling  wooden  works.  By  1808  he  had  risen  to  the 
position  of  foreman  of  the  case  shop. 

Prior  to  this  time  clockmaking  had  been  an  indi- 
vidual trade,  like  that  of  the  village  cobbler.  In 
1810,  after  buying  out  Terry's  interest,  Thomas  & 
Hoadley  continued  in  the  manufacture  of  tall  clocks. 
In  1812  or  1813  Hoadley  bought  Thomas  out  and 
the  latter  moved  to  Plymouth  Hollow,  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  town,  and  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  brass-movement  clocks  on  his  own  account. 
This  business  grew  from  twenty  to  nine  hundred 
operatives,  and  in  1853  Thomas,  having  made  a  for- 
tune, incorporated  the  Seth  Thomas  Clock  Company 
which  is  to-day  doing  a  world-wide  business.  He 
also  built  a  cotton  mill  and  a  brass  rolling  and  wire 
mill. 

Seth  Thomas  was  a  solid,  Puritanical  character,  a 
staunch  Whig,  and  a  prominent  member  of  the  Con- 
gregational Church.  He  was  twice  married — to 
Philena  Tuttle  on  April  20,  1808,  who  died  March 
12,  1810,  and  to  Laura  Andrews  on  April  14,  1811, 
who  survived  him.  He  was  the  father  of  nine  chil- 
dren, three  of  whom  died  in  childhood. 

Seth  Thomas  died  at  Plymouth  Hollow  on  Janu- 
ary 29,  1859.  Shortly,  after,  that  portion  of  the 
town  was  named  Thomaston  by  act  of  Legislature. 

[121] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

The  business  was  incorporated,  with  his  sons, 
Aaron  and  Seth,  Jr.,  as  officers.  They  enlarged  the 
factory  and  broadened  the  business.  Later  the  fac- 
tory, under  the  guidance  of  Seth  E.  Thomas,  son  of 
Seth  Thomas,  Jr.,  made  every  kind  of  timepiece  from 
a  watch  to  a  tower  clock,  and  sent  them  all  over  the 
world. 

Silas  Hoadley  was  born  at  Bethany,  Connecticut, 
on  January  31,  1786.  Like  Thomas,  his  education 
was  meager  and  he  was  bound  out  at  an  early  age  as 
apprentice  to  his  uncle,  Calvin  Hoadley,  who  taught 
him  the  trade  of  carpenter,  which  he  followed  till 
1809,  when  he  entered  the  Terry  shop  as  a  joiner. 

After  the  final  dissolution  of  the  partnership  in 
1814,  Hoadley  continued  the  works  at  Greystone, 
Plymouth,  until  about  1849.  He  made  both  man- 
tel and  tall  clocks,  the  former  in  limited  quantities, 
apparently.  His  tall  clock  cases,  while  not  as  orna- 
mental as  those  of  some  other  clockmakers,  were  al- 
ways tasteful  and  well  proportioned,  and  compare 
favorably  with  anything  Terry  or  Thomas  ever  did. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  was  in  business  for  him- 
self for  some  thirty-five  years,  his  clocks  to-day  are 
very  rare. 

Though  not  possessing  the  inventive  genius  of 
Terry  and  Thomas,  Hoadley  was  a  good  business 

[122] 


CLOCKMAKERS  OF  CONNECTICUT 

man  and  prospered.  He  was  a  prominent  citizen 
of  the  town,  an  active  Episcopalian  churchman, 
and  a  high  Mason.  He  was  a  Democrat  and  was 
three  times  elected  to  the  State  Assembly  and  once, 
in  1844,  to  the  State  Senate.  He  died  at  Plymouth 
December  28,  1870,  leaving  five  children. 

Another  important  figure  in  the  Connecticut  clock 
industry,  though  the  years  of  his  chief  activity  ex- 
tend well  into  the  nineteenth  century,  was  Chauncey 
Jerome.  In  1860  he  published  the  story  of  his  own 
life,  in  connection  with  his  "History  of  the  American 
Clock  Business,"  and  an  interesting  story  it  is. 

He,  too,  was  a  lad  of  small  schooling  but  marked 
native  ability.  He  was  born  at  Canaan,  Connecticut, 
June  10,  1793,  the  son  of  a  poor  farmer  and  black- 
smith and  one  of  six  children.  In  1797  the  family 
moved  to  Plymouth,  where  the  father  set  up  a  black- 
smith shop  and  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  hand- 
wrought  iron  nails.  Until  he  was  nine  years  old 
Chauncey  worked  on  the  farm,  with  the  exception  of 
three  months  in  the  winter,  when  he  went  to  school. 
Then  he  went  to  work  in  his  father's  shop  until  the 
latter' s  death  in  1804. 

From  then  until  he  was  fourteen  young  Chauncey 
worked  for  different  farmers  and  suffered  many 
hardships.  In  1807  he  was  bound  out  to  a  carpenter 

[123] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

until  he  was  twenty-one,  working  for  his  board  and 
clothes. 

He  became  fascinated  with  the  idea  of  learning 
the  clockmaking  trade,  but  his  guardian  would  not 
permit  it,  saying  that  Terry  was  a  visionary  fool. 
But  Chauncey  persisted  and  in  1811  made  a  bargain 
with  his  master,  whereby  he  was  allowed  to  have 
four  months  to  himself  each  winter  if  he  would  buy 
all  his  own  clothes. 

The  first  winter  he  went  to  Waterbury  to  work  for 
one  Lewis  Stebbins,  who  taught  him  the  art  of  mak- 
ing dials  and  clock  cases.  The  following  winter 
he  was  engaged  by  a  Plymouth  clockmaker  named 
Hotchkiss  to  go  to  New  Jersey  to  make  cases  for 
works  that  Hotchkiss  had  previously  sold  there. 
Two  peddlers  went  with  him  to  sell  more  works.  It 
was  a  wonderful  journey,  made  in  a  lumber  wagon, 
and  the  venture  was  reasonably  successful. 

Jerome  volunteered  for  service  in  the  War  of 
1812,  and  after  that,  for  several  years,  experienced 
the  privations  of  poverty.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one 
he  became  his  own  master  and  secured  work  at  wages 
of  $20  a  month,  on  which  he  married.  It  was  in  that 
year  that  he  bought  his  first  pair  of  boots.  Hard 
times  continued  until  1816,  when  he  went  to  work 
for  Eli  Terry,  making  the  new  shelf  clocks.  Terry 

[124] 


CLOCKMAKERS  OF  CONNECTICUT 

began  to  install  circular  saws  and  other  machinery, 
and  Jerome  learned  to  use  these  in  the  making  of 
clock  cases. 

In  1818  Jerome  started  in  business  for  himself  in 
a  small  way,  buying  clock  works  in  Plymouth  and 
making  mahogany  cases  for  them.  An  order  came 
at  last  from  the  South  for  a  number  of  clocks  at  $  1 2 
each,  and  Jerome  delivered  them  himself.  This  was 
the  turning  point  in  his  fortunes,  and  in  1821  he  was 
able  to  move  to  Bristol  and  set  up  a  new  business. 
In  1822  he  engaged  a  clockmaker — Chauncey  Board- 
man — to  make  brass  works  for  him,  and  in  1824  he 
formed,  with  Nobles  Jerome  and  Elijah  Darrow,  the 
firm  of  Jeromes  &  Darrow.  In  this  year  he  ex- 
ported the  first  clock  sent  from  this  country  to 
England. 

Success  followed,  but  Jerome's  later  history 
scarcely  belongs  within  the  period  of  old  clocks, 
which  ended  about  1837.  He  introduced  new  ma- 
chinery and  cheapened  the  cost  of  manufacture  until 
he  was  able  to  make  clocks  for  $2  and  even  $l.  In 
1844  ne  moved  to  New  Haven,  where  his  concern 
made  600  clocks  a  day,  or  200,000  a  year.  His  re- 
tirement followed,  then  the  loss  of  money  by  his 
partners,  and  a  new  start  in  life  at  the  age  of  seventy 
as  superintendent  of  a  Chicago  factory.  Jerome's 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

life  displays  remarkable  evidences  of  strict  integrity 
and  Spartan  courage. 

Besides  those  clockmakers  whose  names  have  been 
mentioned,  there  were  others  at  work  in  Connecticut 
who  are  entitled  at  least  to  passing  notice.  Isaac 
Doolittle,  a  clockmaker,  lived  in  New  Haven  from 
1748  to  1810.  In  Hartford,  Enos  Doolittle  was 
making  clocks  about  1772,  including  some  very 
handsome  ones  in  cherry  cases,  with  dials  and  hoods 
more  elaborate  than  those  of  Terry  or  Thomas.  In 
1783  a  patent  was  issued  to  Benjamin  Hanks  of 
Litchfield  for  a  self-winding  clock.  Silas  Merriam 
and  Timothy  Peck  of  Litchfield  were  at  work  about 
1790,  and  Benjamin  Cheney  in  Manchester  about 
1780.  James  Harrison  was  a  successful  clockmaker 
at  Waterbury;  he  sold  his  first  clock  in  1791  for 
about  $16.50.  In  Bristol,  Joseph,  Chauncey,  and 
Lawson  Ives  were  contemporary  with  Jerome; 
Joseph  invented  an  eight-day  brass  clock  about  1818, 
which  Lawson  later  manufactured  for  about  $20. 
Other  prominent  Connecticut  clockmakers  of  the 
early  nineteenth  century  were  Joseph  Clark  of  Dan- 
bury,  Heman  Clark  of  Plymouth  Hollow,  Daniel 
Clark  of  Waterbury,  Asa  Hopkins  of  Litchfield,  who 
invented  several  improvements  in  clock-making 
machinery,  and  others. 

[128] 


CLOCKMAKERS  OF  CONNECTICUT 

There  was  something  solid  and  admirable  in  the 
characters  of  this  group  of  old  Yankees  that  makes 
them  good  to  consider.  They  represent  so  com- 
pletely the  sterling  traits  of  their  period  and  give  us 
such  a  clear  idea  of  the  sort  of  men  that  built  up  the 
early  industries  of  this  country.  And  apparently 
their  thrift  and  mechanical  ingenuity  did  not  ex- 
clude all  feeling  for  the  beautiful,  for  some  of  their 
designs  are  not  without  artistic  merit,  and  all  are 
quaintly  original. 

Clocks  of  all  these  makers  are  still  to  be  found, 
but  those  of  Terry  and  Thomas  are  the  most  numer- 
ous. The  old  wooden  works  are  apt  to  be  somewhat 
the  worse  for  wear  and  are  often  quite  useless,  but 
the  old  cases  are  a  joy  to  the  collector. 

The  collector's  chief  concern  should  be  to  learn 
which  clocks  originally  contained  wooden  and  which 
brass  works.  A  brass  movement  in  a  clock  originally 
intended  for  wooden  works  naturally  indicates  a 
more  or  less  recent  substitution.  An  old  clock  with 
wooden  works  that  still  tells  the  time  is  indeed  a 
treasure. 

The  old  tall  clocks  are  the  rarest  and  most  valu- 
able. They  may  be  worth  from  $100  to  $350, 
according  to  condition  and  the  quality  and  design  of 
dials  and  cases,  which  vary  widely.  Terry  and 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Thomas  clocks  are  worth  very  nearly  what  they 
brought  when  new.  One  New  York  dealer  who 
specializes  in  American  antiques  has  made  a  business 
of  collecting  Terry  shelf  clocks,  which  he  repairs  and 
refinishes,  putting  in  new  brass  works,  and  sells  at  a 
flat  price  of  $35  each.  Other  wall  and  shelf  clocks 
are  worth,  under  ordinary  conditions,  from  $15 
to  $40. 


[130] 


Simon  Willard.     From  a  portrait  owned  by  the  Missns  Bird,  Dorchester,  Mass. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE    WILLARDS    AND    THEIR    CLOCKS 

CONNECTICUT  and  Massachusetts  were 
not  as  close  together  a  century  ago  as  they 
are  to-day,  yet  there  was  undoubtedly  some 
rivalry  between  the  clockmakers  of  the  two  States. 
The  Yankee  ingenuity  of  Terry  and  Thomas  in  con- 
structing good  clocks  at  cheap  prices  undoubtedly 
affected  the  industry  about  Boston  after  1800,  for 
we  find  the  prices  there  taking  a  decided  drop. 

The  same  rivalry  still  persists  in  a  mild  form 
between  the  descendants  and  adherents  of  the  Wil- 
lards  and  those  of  the  Connecticut  group.  Each 
claims  sole  credit  for  revolutionizing  the  art  of  clock- 
making  in  this  country,  and  a  fair  comparative  ap- 
praisal of  their  work  is  not  easy  to  arrive  at.  Simon 
Willard  was  making  clocks  before  Eli  Terry  was 
born,  and  therefore  has  the  advantage  of  priority. 
In  the  matter  of  design,  the  clock-cases  of  both  Simon 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

and  Aaron  Willard  surpassed  anything  made  in  Con- 
necticut, with  the  possible  exception  of  Terry's  pil- 
lar and  scroll-top  clock.  In  mechanical  genius,  how- 
ever, Terry,  Thomas,  and  Jerome  were  the  equals  of 
Simon  Willard,  and  it  was  certainly  the  Connecticut 
clockmakers  who  turned  a  journeyman's  trade  into  a 
great  industry. 

In  the  eyes  of  the  collector,  beauty  must  always 
count  largely,  and  in  this  the  palm  must  be  handed 
to  the  Willards.  Their  mahogany  tall  clocks  and 
their  banjo  clocks  are  a  delight  to  the  connoisseur. 
Simon  and  Aaron  Willard  were  true  craftsmen. 

The  Willards  came  of  good  New  England  stock. 
Major  Simon  Willard,  an  ancestor,  was  the  founder 
of  Concord,  Massachusetts,  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  King  Phillip's  War.  The  clockmakers  were 
the  sons  of  Benjamin  and  Sarah  Willard,  who  had 
twelve  children. 

One  of  the  elder  sons  was  Benjamin,  born  at 
Graf  ton,  Massachusetts,  March  19,  1743.  He 
started  as  a  clockmaker  in  Grafton,  where  he  prob- 
ably learned  his  trade,  and  began  making  clocks 
about  1765.  About  1768  he  moved  to  Lexington, 
and  to  Roxbury  about  1771,  where  he  advertised 
musical  clocks  for  sale.  An  advertisement  in  the 
Boston  Gazette  for  February  22,  1773,  describes 

[134] 


THE  WILLARDS  AND  THEIR  CLOCKS 

clocks  playing  "a  new  tune  every  day  of  the  week 
and  on  Sunday  a  psalm  tune.  These  tunes  perform 
every  hour."  Little  is  known  of  his  subsequent 
career,  except  that  he  got  into  legal  difficulties  about 
1798  and  died  in  Baltimore  in  1803. 

Benjamin  Willard' s  clocks  are  not  as  famous  or 
as  good  as  those  of  his  younger  brothers,  but  they  are 
older  and  rarer.  He  probably  made  only  tall  clocks, 
some  of  them  in  handsome  mahogany  cases  with 
brass  dials. 

Simon  Willard,  the  eighth  son,  was  by  far  the 
most  famous,  though  less  successful  in  a  business  way 
than  Aaron.  He  was  born  in  Grafton,  April  3, 
1753,  and  his  story  is  set  forth  in  considerable  detail 
in  a  biography  written  by  his  great-grandson,  the 
late  John  Ware  Willard. 

He  spent  his  boyhood  in  Grafton,  attending  school 
there  until  he  was  apprenticed  to  an  English  clock- 
maker  of  moderate  abilities,  named  Morris.  He 
was  helped  also  by  his  brother  Benjamin  and  soon 
discovered  his  own  mechanical  genius.  When  he 
was  only  thirteen  years  old  he  made  a  tall,  striking 
clock  that  was  pronounced  better  than  any  of  his 
master's,  doing  all  the  work  by  hand  with  file,  drill, 
and  hammer.  Upon  the  expiration  of  his  term  of 
apprenticeship  he  either  went  to  work  for  his  brother 

[135] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

for  a  time  or  at  once  started  in  the  business  for  him- 
self. 

None  of  the  Willards  appear  to  have  been  ardent 
patriots,  and  their  connection  with  the  Revolution- 
ary War  was  more  or  less  perfunctory.  Simon 
joined  Captain  Aaron  Kimball's  company  of  militia 
and  marched  to  Roxbury  at  the  time  of  the  Lexing- 
ton alarm,  April  19,  1775.  He  served  for  one  week. 
Later  he  was  drafted,  but  secured  a  substitute  and 
remained  in  Grafton  during  the  rest  of  the  war. 

On  November  29,  1776,  he  married  his  cousin, 
Hannah  Willard,  who  died,  with  her  child,  in  1777. 
In  1780  he  moved  to  Roxbury  and  set  up  a  shop  at 
what  is  now  2196  Washington  Street.  Here  he 
lived,  with  his  shop  back  of  the  house,  until  he  retired 
in  1839.  As  an  advertisement  he  built  a  big  double- 
dial  clock  which  he  hung  on  the  front  of  the  house 
next  door,  his  own  house  being  too  small.  This 
clock  was  a  landmark  in  Roxbury  until  1839,  when 
Willard  presented  it  to  the  town. 

On  January  23,  1788,  he  was  married  again  to 
Mrs.  Mary  (Bird)  Leeds,  a  widow,  of  Dorchester, 
who  died  July  23,  1823,  leaving  eleven  children. 

While  still  in  Grafton,  Simon  Willard  improved 
the  English  clock-jack,  a  mechanical  device  for  turn- 
ing a  spit  in  roasting  meat  over  an  open  fire,  and  in 


A  Simon  Willard  tall  clock  owned  by  the 
Butler  Hospital,  Providence,  R.   I. 


A  typical  example  of  Willard  tall  clock,  with 
moon's  phases  above  the  dial. 


THE  WILLARDS  AND  THEIR  CLOCKS 

1874  ne  was  granted  the  exclusive  privilege  for  five 
years  (signed  by  John  Hancock)  of  making  and  sell- 
ing his  clock-jack  in  Massachusetts. 

In  Grafton,  he  made  eight-day  tall  clocks  similar 
to  those  of  his  brother  Benjamin,  and  also  a  neat 
shelf  clock.  In  Roxbury,  he  made,  at  first,  only  tall 
clocks,  but  later  he  became  equally  well  known  for 
tower  and  gallery  clocks,  and  for  wall  clocks  which 
he  always  spoke  of  as  timepieces.  These  clocks  he 
made  chiefly  during  the  winter  and  peddled  them  in 
summer  along  the  North  Shore,  going,  at  least  once, 
as  far  as  Bangor,  Maine. 

An  advertisement  of  this  period  gives  the  follow- 
ing prices :  Steeple  clocks,  one  dial,  $500 ;  two  dials, 
$600;  three  dials,  $700;  four  dials,  $900;  "common 
eight-day  clocks  with  very  elegant  faces  and  mahog- 
any cases,"  $50  to  $60;  eight-day  timepieces,  $30; 
thirty-hour  timepieces,  $10;  spring  clocks,  $50  to 
$60;  one-year  clocks,  fine  cases,  $100;  astronomical 
clocks,  $70;  gallery  clocks,  $55;  chime  clocks,  six 
tunes,  $120.  He  also  made  a  sort  of  cyclometer  for 
carriages  at  $15. 

In  1801  he  invented  the  improved  timepiece  which 
has  come  to  be  popularly  known,  because  of  its  shape, 
as  the  banjo  clock.  It  was  an  eight-day,  non-strik- 
ing, pendulum  clock,  smaller  and  more  compact  than 

[139] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

the  tall  clock,  and  easily  fastened  to  the  wall.  It 
won  instant  success.  In  1802  he  got  it  patented, 
his  papers  bearing  the  distinguished  signatures  of 
Thomas  Jefferson,  President,  James  Madison,  Secre- 
tary of  State,  and  Levi  Lincoln,  Attorney  General. 
A  few  of  these  banjo  clocks  may  have  been  made  by 
him  experimentally  prior  to  1801. 

In  1819  Willard  took  out  another  patent  for  an 
alarm  clock,  but  apparently  he  went  to  no  great 
trouble  to  enforce  his  patent  rights,  for  the  banjo 
clock  was  early  copied  by  a  number  of  his  contempo- 
raries, though  none  of  their  clocks  equaled  his. 

After  1802,  Simon  Willard  largely  abandoned  the 
manufacture  of  tall  clocks  and  devoted  himself  to 
the  timepieces,  making  tall  clocks  to  order  only.  He 
began  to  secure  special  commissions,  too,  for  tower 
and  gallery  clocks  which  took  him  away  from  home, 
so  that  he  gave  up  his  peddling  about  1805. 

In  1801  he  made  a  large  clock  for  the  United 
States  Senate.  The  principle  employed  in  the  works 
was  a  new  one,  so  that  he  had  to  go  to  Washington 
to  show  the  authorities  how  to  run  it.  Willard's 
bill  for  this  clock  was  $770.  It  was  destroyed  when 
the  British  burned  Washington  in  1814. 

While  at  the  Capital,  Willard  met  President  Jef- 
ferson, and  a  genuine  friendship  sprang  up  between 

[140] 


THE  WILLARDS  AND  THEIR  CLOCKS 

the  two  men.  In  1826,  Jefferson  gave  Willard  the 
commission  for  a  turret  clock  for  the  University  of 
Virginia  at  Charlottesville.  The  specifications, 
drawn  up  by  Jefferson  himself,  were  the  most  com- 
plete and  accurate  that  Willard  had  ever  received. 
They  called  for  a  sixty-inch  dial. 

Willard  went  to  Charlottesville  to  install  this 
clock,  which  did  service  for  over  sixty  years.  While 
in  Virginia  he  visited  Jefferson  at  Montecello  and 
also  Madison  at  Montpelier. 

Simon  Willard  was  a  self-educated  man  and  was 
very  proud  of  his  connection  with  Harvard  College 
and  his  friendship  with  its  president  and  faculty. 
For  years  he  kept  the  Harvard  clocks  in  order.  He 
presented  two  clocks  to  the  college,  both  of  which 
are  still  in  existence.  One,  a  tall  clock,  stands  in  the 
Faculty  Room;  the  other,  a  banjo-shaped  regulator, 
is  in  University  Hall. 

Willard  was  also  a  friend  of  Josiah  Quincy  and 
made  an  elaborate  timepiece  for  him  as  a  wedding 
gift  for  his  daughter  in  1826. 

In  1837  ne  made  two  more  clocks  for  the  Govern- 
ment. They  were  set  up  and  tested  in  his  son 
Simon's  shop  in  Boston  and  he  took  them  to  Wash- 
ington himself.  One  was  ordered  by  Associate 
Justice  Story  and  was  placed  in  the  old  Senate 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Chamber,  now  the  Supreme  Court.  The  other  was 
constructed  especially  for  a  case  designed  by  Carlo 
Franzoni  in  1819,  representing  Clio,  goddess  of  his- 
tory. It  is  now  to  be  seen  in  Statuary  Hall.  On 
this  visit  Willard  met  President  Van  Buren  and 
other  celebrities. 

During  these  years  Willard  installed  a  number  of 
tower  clocks  which  have  become  more  or  less  famous. 
In  1804  he  made  a  handsome  gallery  clock  for  the 
First  Congregational  Church  of  Roxbury,  and  in 
1806  a  one-dial  clock  for  the  steeple  of  the  new 
meeting-house.  His  price  was  $858.  In  1857  four 
new  dials  were  placed  on  the  steeple;  otherwise  the 
clock  is  the  same.  Willard  had  charge  of  the  run- 
ning of  these  clocks  as  long  as  he  remained  in  Rox- 
bury. 

Willard's  great-grandson  compiled  the  following 
fairly  complete  list  of  his  public  clocks : 

First  Church  of  Dedham,  1820  (replaced). 

Old  State  House,  Boston  (now  running). 

U.  S.  Senate,  1801  (destroyed  1814). 

Jefferson  College,  afterward  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia, 1826  (destroyed  by  fire  1895). 

First  Church,  Roxbury,  1806. 

Park  Street  Church,  Boston  (replaced  1906). 

[142] 


A  Simon  Willard  presentation 
timepiece,  owned  by  Mr.  Dwight 
M.  Prouty,  Boston. 


An  Aaron  Willard  banjo  clock 
with  a  picture  of  the  Conslitution- 
Cuerriere  battle. 


THE  WILLARDS  AND  THEIR  CLOCKS 

North  Church,  Newburyport,  1785  (destroyed  by 
fire  1861). 

Boy  Is  ton  Market,  Boston  (still  running). 

North  Church,  Portland,  Maine,  1802  (replaced 

1893). 
Chief  Clerk's  Office,  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  1837 

(still  running). 

The  Franzoni  Clock,  1837  (still  running). 

First  Unitarian  Church,  Cambridge,  1832  (still 
running). 

First  Congregational  Church,  Falmouth. 

Willard  returned  to  Roxbury  for  good  in  1837 
and  retired  from  business  in  1839.  For  three  years 
he  lived  with  his  son,  Simon,  Jr.,  in  Boston,  and  for 
two  years  with  his  son-in-law,  Edward  Bird  of  Dor- 
chester. In  Boston  he  spent  a  good  deal  of  his  time 
in  his  son's  shop,  loath  to  leave  the  vocation  he  loved. 
In  Dorchester  he  continued  to  amuse  himself  in  the 
shop  of  Elnathan  Taber,  an  old  friend  and  appren- 
tice of  his. 

After  1845  he  lived  with  his  daughters,  Mrs.  Ho- 
bart  of  Milton  and  Mrs.  Isaac  Cary  of  Boston.  He 
retained  his  keen  faculties  to  the  last  and  died  quietly 
at  the  Cary  home  in  Washington  Street  on  August 
30,  1848,  in  his  ninety-sixth  year. 

[145] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Simon  Willard  was  a  great  inventor  and  crafts- 
man, but  a  poor  business  man.  His  fortune  was  but 
$500  when  he  retired  and  he  died  poor.  He  was 
honest,  proud,  and  sensitive.  He  was  a  tireless 
worker,  often  spending  twelve  or  fourteen  hours  a 
day  at  his  bench.  During  his  lifetime  it  is  esti- 
mated that  he  made  about  1,200  eight-day  clocks  and 
4,000  timepieces,  besides  the  others.  He  also  in- 
vented and  manufactured  machinery  for  turning 
lighthouse  turrets.  In  some  respects  his  clocks  have 
never  been  improved  upon. 

It  is,  of  course,  the  shelf  clocks,  tall  clocks,  and 
timepieces  in  which  the  collector  is  chiefly  interested. 
The  first  clocks  he  made  in  Grafton  were  thirty-hour 
shelf  clocks,  about  twenty-six  inches  high  in  plain 
cases  of  cherry  or  mahogany  with  brass  dials.  The 
movement  was  good,  forming  the  basis  of  his  later 
timepiece.  These  shelf  clocks  are  valuable  to-day 
because  of  their  rarity.  He  also  made  a  few  minia- 
ture tall  clocks,  about  two  feet  high,  with  fine 
mahogany  cases  and  brass  dials.  These  are  very 
rare. 

Simon  Willard's  tall  clocks  were  made  chiefly 
between  1780  and  1802.  They  were  eight-day 
striking  clocks  with  excellent  works  of  hammered 
brass,  cut  out  by  hand  with  a  file.  He  is  said  to 


THE  WILLARDS  AND  THEIR  CLOCKS 

have  become  so  expert  that  he  could  cut  the  teeth 
of  the  wheels  with  absolute  accuracy  by  his  eye,  with 
no  marks  to  guide  him.  The  steel  pinions  were  also 
made  by  hand.  At  one  period  Paul  Revere  is  said 
to  have  made  some  of  Willard's  brass  castings. 

Working  alone,  Willard  could  turn  out  one  of 
these  tall  clocks  in  six  days.  Later,  with  better 
tools,  he  averaged  one  timepiece  a  day  without  case. 
During  his  latter  years  he  made  some  use  of  an  Eng- 
lish wheel-cutting  machine. 

The  movements  of  these  clocks,  some  of  which 
have  kept  excellent  time  to  this  day,  are  wonderful 
examples  of  file  work;  and  more  remarkable  still, 
the  craftsman's  hand  lost  none  of  its  cunning  as  the 
years  advanced.  At  the  age  of  eighty-five  he  was 
as  skilful  as  when  he  first  opened  his  shop  in  Rox- 
bury. 

The  original  rods  of  the  long  forty-inch  pendu- 
lums were  of  selected  wood,  baked  hard  and  pol- 
ished. In  most  of  the  clocks  now  extant  these  pen- 
dulums have  been  replaced  by  later  ones.  The  orig- 
inal weights  were  of  brass  filled  with  shot.  The 
dials,  generally  of  iron,  sometimes  of  wood,  were 
painted  with  eight  or  ten  coats,  each  rubbed  down 
till  the  finish  was  like  enamel.  A  few  of  the  earlier 
clocks  had  Arabic  numerals,  but  they  were  usually 

[147] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Roman.  Some  of  the  dials  were  finely  decorated  by 
artists,  one  of  whom  was  a  Charles  Bullard. 

Simon  Willard  did  not  make  his  own  cases  or 
dials,  but  he  demanded  always  the  best  of  workman- 
ship. The  cases  of  his  tall  clocks  were  made  by 
Henry  Willard  of  Roxbury,  Charles  Crehore  of 
Dorchester,  William  Fiske  of  Watertown,  and  oth- 
ers. They  were  made  on  the  same  general  model, 
from  carefully  selected,  well  seasoned  oak,  ma- 
hogany, and  cherry,  occasionally  inlaid  with^  satin- 
wood  or  holly.  On  the  top  of  the  hood  were  placed 
brass  urns,  balls,  or  spikes,  rarely  the  eagle. 

Some  of  these  tall  clocks  had  chime  or  musical  at- 
tachments and  the  dials  often  told  the  days  of  the 
month  and  the  phases  of  the  moon. 

The  patent  timepiece  or  banjo  clock  of  1802  be- 
came at  once  popular  because  of  its  convenience,  its 
graceful  shape  and  decorative  finish,  and  its  excel- 
lent timekeeping  qualities.  The  movement  which, 
as  well  as  the  form  of  the  case,  was  original  with 
Willard,  was  designed  for  economy  of  space  and  ran 
with  a  shortened  pendulum. 

There  were  three  types  of  banjo  clock.  The  first 
had  a  plain  mahogany  case,  occasionally  inlaid,  with 
curved  brass  side  ornaments,  but  with  no  glass  front 
and  no  bracket.  The  second  kind,  which  was  made 


bl 

B  n<< 


THE  WILLARDS  AND  THEIR  CLOCKS 

in  the  largest  quantities,  had  a  mahogany  case,  brass 
side  ornaments,  and  glass  front,  but  no  bracket  or 
base  piece.  The  most  ornate  kind  was  known  as 
the  presentation  clock  and  was  of  mahogany  and 
white  enamel  with  gilded  beading  and  painted  glass 
front,  and  with  an  ornamental  base  bracket.  The 
presentation  clocks  were  popular  as  wedding  gifts 
and  cost  $80  or  more.  Josiah  Quincy's  purchase 
was  one  of  these. 

The  top  ornaments  varied,  brass  balls,  urns,  and 
brass  or  gilded  wooden  acorns  being  commonest. 
Simon  Willard  seldom  if  ever  used  the  spread  eagle, 
which  was  often  added  later  and  was  much  used  by 
his  imitators. 

The  dial  glasses  were  slightly  convex.  The  glass 
fronts  were  painted  chiefly  by  Charles  Bullard  and 
an  Englishman  whose  name  has  been  lost.  The  de- 
signs were  chiefly  lacy  arabesques  and  scroll  work, 
leaf  designs,  etc.,  executed  in  gold  leaf  on  a  white 
ground. 

The  door  glasses  were  usually  painted  with  bor- 
ders of  gold  and  black  on  a  white  ground,  or  various 
color  combinations,  with  an  oval  or  oblong  space  left 
in  the  center  through  which  the  swinging  pendulum 
might  be  seen.  Simon  Willard  did  not  use  land- 
scapes, pictures  of  battles,  ships,  flags,  or  eagles  on 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

these  door  glasses,  and  no  gilt  on  the  wooden  cases 
except  on  the  gift  clocks. 

He  made  a  few  mahogany  timepieces  of  a  slightly 
different  design  as  regulators  for  banks  and  offices. 
His  gallery  clocks  usually  had  gilt  cases  with  large 
round  dials  surmounted  with  the  spread  eagle.  The 
short  pendulum  cases  had  painted  glass  fronts  and 
usually  rested  on  a  bracket. 

None  of  the  Willards  made  clocks  with  wooden 
works.  Simon  Willard  signed  many  of  his  tall 
clocks  on  the  dials  and  his  timepieces — generally  "S. 
Willard's  Patent" — on  the  doors  of  the  pendulum 
cases. 

Though  several  of  the  Willards  were  in  the  clock 
business,  they  were  none  of  them  partners.  Next 
to  Simon  in  fame  was  his  younger  brother  Aaron, 
who  was  born  October  13,  1757,  and  may  have 
learned  his  trade  from  Benjamin  or  Simon  in  Graf- 
ton. 

In  1775,  Aaron  marched  to  Roxbury  with  the 
Grafton  Militia,  as  a  fifer,  and  served  for  a  few 
weeks.  In  1780,  he  moved  to  Roxbury  and  opened 
a  shop  near  Simon's.  He  was  a  better  business  man 
than  his  brothers  and  he  prospered  from  the  start. 
He  peddled  his  clocks  along  the  South  Shore,  while 
Simon  covered  the  North  Shore. 


THE  WILLARDS  AND  THEIR  CLOCKS 

Aaron  Willard  moved  to  Washington  Street,  Bos- 
ton, about  1790,  and  established  a  factory  connected 
with  his  house.  A  little  colony  of  his  employees  and 
the  allied  trades — cabinet-makers,  painters,  etc. — 
soon  grew  up  about  him  and  other  clockmakers  were 
attracted  to  the  neighborhood,  so  that  by  1816  it 
had  become  the  clockmaking  quarter  of  the  city. 
Here  he  prospered,  employing  twenty  or  thirty 
workmen,  and  retired,  well-to-do,  about  1823. 
His  business  was  continued  by  his  son,  Aaron 
Willard,  Jr.,  who  originated  the  lyre  clock  and 
produced  many  styles  to  meet  the  changing 
demands.  Aaron,  Sr.,  died  in  1844,  at  the  age  of 
eighty-seven. 

Aaron  Willard  first  made  tall  and  shelf  clocks, 
and  later  banjo  clocks,  gallery  clocks,  and  regulators. 
The  styles  of  his  tall  clocks  varied  considerably  in 
excellence.  The  cases  were  usually  of  mahogany, 
sometimes  of  oak  or  cherry,  and  occasionally  inlaid. 
He  produced  several  styles  of  shelf  clocks,  standing 
about  thirty  inches  high,  of  no  very  great  distinction 
in  design. 

About  1802  Aaron  copied  his  brother's  patent 
timepiece,  changing  the  pattern  somewhat.  His 
glass  fronts  were  never  so  finely  decorated  as  were 
Simon's  and  he  generally  painted  a  picture  on  the 

[153] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

doors  of  his  pendulum  cases.     He  used  gold  beading 
and  base  brackets  more  often  than  Simon. 

In  general,  Aaron  Willard's  clocks,  while  not 
lacking  in  decorative  merit,  were  somewhat  inferior 
to  Simon's.  But  he  made  more  of  them  and  they 
are  to  be  found  somewhat  more  frequently  to-day. 

Ephraim  Willard,  another  of  the  brothers,  born 
March  18,  1755,  followed  the  trade  of  watchmaker 
and  clockmaker  in  Medford  and  Roxbury.  In  1801 
he  moved  to  Boston.  He  made  a  few  tall  clocks 
which  are  now  very  rare. 

Two  or  three  of  Simon  Willard's  sons  followed 
their  father's  calling.  Simon,  Jr.,  the  second  son, 
born  in  1795,  left  school  at  the  age  of  fourteen  to 
learn  the  trade.  A  few  years  later  he  gave  it  up  and 
entered  West  Point,  remaining  in  the  army  till  1816. 
He  started  a  clock  business  in  Roxbury,  but  failed, 
and  went  to  New  York  in  1826  to  learn  watchmak- 
ing. He  returned  in  1828  and  started  in  business 
again  in  Boston  at  9  Congress  Street,  where  he  be- 
came successful  and  wealthy.  He  invented  and  con- 
structed a  wonderfully  accurate  chronometer  or  as- 
tronomical clock,  which  for  years  was  the  standard. 
He  remained  in  business  for  forty-two  years  and 
died  in  1874. 

Benjamin  F.  Willard,  Simon's  fifth  son,  was  also 

[154] 


The   advertisement   label   which   Simon   Willard 
pasted  inside  the  cases  of  his  tall  clocks. 


A  'typical    Simon    Willard    patent 

timejneoe  or  £>?mjo  chock.      Th? 

"e  V»rr  top.  is  iji^abaply  p.  later 

'  '' 


THE  WILLARDS  AND  THEIR  CLOCKS 

a  skilled  mechanic  and  inventor.  He  learned  the 
clockmaking  trade  from  his  father.  Like  all  of  the 
Willards,  he  started  as  a  poor  lad  and  passed  through 
a  severe  struggle  before  success  came  to  him.  He 
was  born  in  1803  and  died  in  1847. 

Simon  Willard  had  many  apprentices,  much  of 
whose  work  is  worth  knowing.  Of  these  the  best 
known  was  Elnathan  Taber.  When  Willard  re- 
tired, Taber  bought  his  tools  and  continued  the  man- 
ufacture of  the  patent  timepieces,  most  of  which 
were  sold  by  Simon,  Jr.,  in  his  Boston  store  at  $16 
apiece.  Some  of  these  clocks  are  marked  "Simon 
Willard,  Boston,"  but  should  not  be  confused  with 
the  original  timepieces  marked  "S.  Willard's  Pat- 
ent." Other  makers  also  made  use  of  the  Willard 
name  in  some  form  or  other,  but  their  banjo  clocks 
lack  the  decorative  grace  of  the  originals,  and  the 
imitators  more  frequently  used  the  spread  eagle  on 
top  and  pictures  of  naval  battles  of  the  War  of  1812, 
landscapes,  etc.,  on  the  pendulum  cases.  Sometimes 
they  introduced  striking  attachments. 

Other  apprentices  who  were  afterward  successful 
were  Levi  and  Abel  Hutchins,  William  Cummins, 
and  William  King  Lemst.  Among  the  other  con- 
temporaries who  followed  Willard's  styles  more  or 
less  may  be  mentioned  Samuel  Mulliken,  David 

[157] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Wood,  and  Thomas  Balch  of  Newburyport,  Benja- 
min Bagnall,  Jr.,  of  Boston,  Daniel  and  Nathaniel 
Munroe  and  Samuel  Whiting  of  Concord,  Massa- 
chusetts. 

Most  noteworthy  of  all  was  Lemuel  Curtis,  who 
made  banjo  clocks  that  were  even  more  elegant  than 
Simon  Willard's  presentation  clocks.  Curtis  was 
,born  in  Boston  in  1790,  moved  to  Concord  in  1814, 
and  took  out  a  patent  in  1816  on  an  improvement 
on  the  Willard  timepiece.  He  moved  to  Burling- 
ton, Vermont,  about  1818,  and  died  there  in  1857. 
His  clocks  show  much  gilding  and  ornament,  and  a 
round  instead  of  a  square  pendulum  case  covered 
with  convex  glass  on  which  a  landscape  or  some 
classical  or  allegorical  subject  was  painted. 

These  Willards  are  not  to  be  confused  with 
Philander  J.  and  Alexander  T.  Willard,  who  made 
clocks  at  Ashby,  Massachusetts,  between  1800  and 
1840.  They  were  probably  not  related  to  the  Graf- 
ton  family. 

As  in  the  case  of  other  antiques,  present-day  val- 
ues depend  largely  upon  the  eagerness  of  the  pur- 
chaser. Willard  tall  clocks  are  now  so  rare  as  to  be 
practically  out  of  the  market.  In  New  York,  where 
the  highest  prices  prevail,  they  are  valued  at  $250 
to  $500,  according  to  their  condition.  Simon  Wil- 

[158] 


Five  Baron  Stiegel  salt  cups  of  the  fourteen  owned  by  Mrs.  Albert  K.  Hostetter, 
Lancaster,   Pa. 


Clear  and  tinted  pitchers  and  creamers  in  the  Hostetter  Collection. 


THE  WILLARDS  AND  THEIR  CLOCKS 

lard  timepieces  of  the  ordinary  type,  with  mahogany 
cases  and  no  base  bracket,  are  priced  at  $75  to  $85, 
which  is  rather  more  than  they  are  worth,  and  good 
examples  of  the  presentation  clock,  with  bracket,  at 
$100  or  more.  An  Aaron  Willard  timepiece,  with 
the  picture  of  the  battle  between  the  frigates  Guer- 
riere  and  Constitution,  was  recently  shown  in  a  New 
York  shop  window  with  a  $50  price  mark.  Doubt- 
less it  could  be  bought  for  $35  or  $40.  The  Aaron 
Willard  shelf  clocks  are  worth  somewhat  less,  and 
good  banjo  clocks  by  other  makers  may  be  valued 
at  from  $20  to  $35,  according  to  style  and  condi- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  VII 

BARON    STIEGEL    AND    HIS    GLASSWARE 

WHEN  the  assiduous  historians  of  Penn- 
sylvania have  at  length  stripped  bare 
of  its  mythical  embellishments  the 
story  of  "Baron  Heinrich  von  Stiegel,"  there  will 
still  remain  to  us  the  biography  of  one  of  the  most 
romantic  characters  that  ever  flourished  on  this  side 
of  the  Atlantic.  And  there  will  also  remain  to  those 
of  us  who  care  for  such  things  a  few  pieces  of  the 
famous  Stiegel  glassware,  among  the  early  objects 
of  fine  domestic  art  manufactured  in  the  Colonies. 
He  was,  indeed,  not  merely  the  picturesque,  spec- 
tacular figure  that  legend  has  painted  him,  but  an 
ironmaster,  town  builder,  and  glassmaker,  and  one 
of  the  most  notable  of  pre-Revolutionary  manufac- 
turers in  America. 

In  telling  the  story  of  Stiegel's  life  and  career  I 
shall  endeavor  to  confine  myself  to  such  facts  as  are 
now  generally  agreed  upon  by  the  historians.  His 

[162] 


BARON  STIEGEL  AND  HIS  GLASSWARE 

name  was  undoubtedly  Heinrich  Wilhelm  Stiegel; 
that  is  the  way  he  signed  the  ship's  roster  when  he 
came  to  this  country.  Later,  following  the  custom 
of  his  time,  he  varied  it  to  Henry  Wm.  Stiegel.  He 
was  born  May  13,  1729,  near  Cologne,  on  the  French 
side  of  the  Rhine  (or,  as  the  older  tradition  has  it, 
near  Mannheim,  Germany),  the  son  of  John  Fred- 
erich  and  Dorothea  Elizabeth  Stiegel.  At  the  death 
of  his  father  in  1741,  he  and  his  mother  and  his 
younger  brother  Anthony  gathered  together  their 
worldly  goods  and  started  for  the  New  World,  where 
many  of  their  neighbors  had  found  liberty  and  pros- 
perity. On  August  31,  1750,  they  arrived  at  Phil- 
adelphia on  the  good  ship  Nancy.  The  legend  that 
Stiegel  came  with  a  patrimony  of  £40,000  has  been 
pretty  well  disproved;  he  probably  came  to  these 
shores  a  comparatively  poor  boy,  seeking  his  for- 
tune. 

The  mother  and  brother  settled  in  SchaefTers- 
town,  Pennsylvania,  where  they  lived  and  eventu- 
ally died,  but  Heinrich  traveled  about  the  country 
looking  for  his  chance.  In  those  days  there  were 
thriving  iron  mines  in  Pennsylvania — the  most  pro- 
ductive in  this  country — and  about  them  had  sprung 
up  forges  and  furnaces  and  prosperous  ironmasters. 
One  of  these  was  Jacob  Huber  of  Brickerville,  Lan- 

[165] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

caster  County.  The  Brickerville  situation  looked 
good  to  young  Stiegel,  and  on  November  7,  1752,  he 
married  Huber's  daughter  Elizabeth.  Two  daugh- 
ters were  born  to  them— Barbara  and  Elizabeth. 

In  1^57,  Stiegel  had  saved  enough  money  to  buy 
his  father-in-law's  furnace  property,  which  he 
promptly  tore  down,  erecting  a  new  and  larger  one, 
which  he  named  Elizabeth  Furnace. 

On  February  13,  1758,  StiegePs  wife  Elizabeth 
died  and  was  buried  in  the  Lutheran  graveyard  at 
Brickerville.  A  year  and  a  half  later  he  married 
Elizabeth  Holtz  of  Philadelphia,  who  bore  him  one 
son,  Jacob.  He  built  a  house  near  the  Falls  of  the 
Schuylkill  in  Philadelphia,  where  they  lived  until 
1765,  when  he  made  his  chief  residence  at  Elizabeth 
Furnace  again. 

The  business  of  the  Elizabeth  Furnace  prospered 
from  the  start,  and  he  began  making  an  ovenless, 
pipeless,  wood-burning  iron  stove  which  was  in- 
tended to  fit  into  the  jamb  of  the  kitchen  fireplace. 
On  these  first  stoves  appeared  this  inscription: 

Baron   Stiegel   1st   der   Mann 
Der  die  Ofen  Geisen  Kann. 

Which  brings  up  the  question  of  his  alleged  title 
of  nobility.  It  was  undoubtedly  a  nickname,  but 

[166] 


BARON  STIEGEL  AND  HIS  GLASSWARE 

whether  originally  applied  in  honor  or  in  jest,  is  a 
matter  of  conjecture.  His  extravagant  habits  of  os- 
tentation and  the  feudal  elegance  and  lavishness  of 
his  manner  of  living  certainly  proved  the  aptness 
of  the  title,  and  it  stuck.  Perhaps  that  is  all  we 
need  to  know  about  it.  At  any  rate,  "Baron"  Stie- 
gel  he  will  be  to  us  so  long  as  a  piece  of  his  glassware 
remains  intact. 

Stiegel  improved  this  stove,  made  a  few  open 
Franklins,  and  eventually  perfected  the  ten-plate 
stove  which  served  our  ancestors  for  a  hundred  years. 
Few  of  these  are  now  to  be  found  intact,  but  Penn- 
sylvania antiquarians  have  found  it  interesting  to 
collect  the  iron  plates.  A  stove-plate  owned  by  Mr. 
George  S.  Banner  bears  a  classic  profile  (the  like- 
ness of  George  III,  perhaps)  surrounded  by  a 
wreath.  Below  are  Masonic  emblems  and  above 
the  inscription  "Stiegel  Elizabeth  Furnace, 
1769." 

By  1760,  Stiegel  had  become  one  of  the  most 
prosperous  ironmasters  in  Pennsylvania.  Elizabeth 
Furnace  was  kept  continuously  busy  and  trade  was 
growing.  About  seventy-five  men  were  employed 
here.  Near  the  furnace  the  Baron  erected  twenty- 
five  tenant  houses,  several  of  which  are  still  stand- 
ing. The  property  included  some  900  acres,  much 

[167] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

of  it  in  timber,  and  a  gang  of  men  was  employed  to 
cut  the  wood  and  burn  the  charcoal  that  was  used 
in  smelting  the  ore.  Stiegel  owned  also  stores,  a 
mill,  and  a  malt  house. 

A  spacious  house,  substantially  built  of  sandstone, 
which  still  stands  near  the  site  of  the  furnace,  is  said 
to  be  the  mansion  occupied  by  Stiegel  during  his 
monthly  visits,  while  his  main  residence  was  in  Phil- 
adelphia. At  this  house,  as  at  Philadelphia,  a  corps 
of  servants  was  maintained  sufficient  for  any  emer- 
gency. The  Baron's  proclivity  toward  a  feudal  es- 
tablishment was  beginning  to  assert  itself. 

It  was  about  this  time,  too,  that  Stiegel  began 
seeking  business  expansion  and  new  commercial  in- 
terests. His  first  move  in  this  direction  was  the 
purchase  of  a  one-half  interest  in  Charming  Forge, 
near  Womeldorf,  Berks  County,  on  Tulpehocken 
Creek. 

During  these  years  of  business  activity  Stiegel  had 
associated  himself  with  two  shrewd  brothers,  Charles 
and  Alexander  Stedman,  a  merchant  and  a  lawyer 
of  Philadelphia.  In  September,  1762,  he  formed  a 
partnership  with  them,  paying  £50  sterling  for  a 
one-third  interest  in  the  Stiegel  Company  and  in  a 
tract  of  729  acres  of  land  lying  on  the  north  bank 
of  Chiquesalunga  or  Chiques  Creek,  in  Lancaster 

[168] 


BARON  STIEGEL  AND  HIS  GLASSWARE 

County.  Their  plan  was  to  develop  a  town  here 
and  make  a  fortune  in  real  estate. 

Stiegel,  before  his  departure  for  the  New  World, 
had  received  a  first-class  education.  One  of  his 
many  accomplishments  was  surveying,  and  he  laid 
out  the  new  town  according  to  his  own  design  and 
called  it  Manheim.  Tradition  asserts  that  it  was 
originally  a  faithful  replica  of  the  German  city  of 
Mannheim.  Here  the  company  built  and  sold 
houses,  subject  to  ground  rental,  and  conducted  a 
clever  and  successful  boom. 

Within  the  area  of  the  new  town  there  were  only 
two  little  log  houses  standing,  but  soon  an  orderly, 
attractive  village  replaced  them.  Early  in  1763, 
Stiegel,  who  had  become  greatly  interested  in  this 
venture,  began  the  building  of  mansion  number  three 
at  the  corner  of  Market  Square  and  East  High 
Street.  It  was  a  square  house,  forty  feet  on  each 
side,  and  was  constructed  of  brick  which  were  spe- 
cially imported  from  England,  and  were  hauled  from 
Philadelphia  in  the  Baron's  wagons. 

The  house  was  two  years  in  building.  When  com- 
pleted it  was  elaborately  furnished.  The  great  par- 
lor was  hung  with  tapestries  of  hunting  scenes  (part 
of  which  are  preserved  by  the  Pennsylvania  His- 
torical S%ociety),  doors  and  wainscoting  were  heavily 

[171] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

paneled,  and  the  mantels  were  adorned  with  blue 
Delft  tiles. 

Stiegel  was  a  religious  man  with  a  decided  bent 
toward  preaching.  Half  of  the  second  floor  in  the 
Manheim  house  was  built  in  the  form  of  an  arched 
chapel,  with  a  pulpit  and  pews.  Here  the  Baron 
was  wont  to  gather  his  working  people  together,  and 
in  a  pompous  but  solemn  manner  expound  to  them  in 
the  German  tongue  the  doctrines  of  the  Lutheran 
faith.  Another  unique  feature  of  this  house,  illus- 
trating his  eccentricity  perhaps  as  much  as  his  taste 
for  music,  was  a  platform  on  the  roof,  surrounded  by 
a  balustrade,  where  a  band  of  his  employees  dis- 
coursed music  on  all  possible  occasions  on  instru- 
ments of  his  providing. 

While  the  business  at  Elizabeth  Furnace  was  pros- 
pering, with  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  workmen 
employed,  progress  at  Manheim  was  a  bit  too  slow 
to  suit  the  enterprising  Baron.  Some  industry  was 
essential  to  insure  the  growth  of  the  town,  so  Stie- 
gel resolved  to  erect  a  glass  factory.  Glassmaking 
had  been  for  centuries  one  of  the  industrial  arts  of. 
the  region  of  Cologne,  where  Stiegel  was  born,  and 
he  may  have  received  technical  training  in  the  trade, 
for  subsequent  events  proved  him  to  be  no  novice. 
He  had,  in  fact,  been  manufacturing  window  glass 


BARON  STIEGEL  AND  HIS  GLASSWARE 

and  bottles  in  a  small  way  at  Brickerville  since  1763, 
including  clear  glass  and  several  greens. 

The  new  plant  was  built  of  imported  brick  and 
was  completed  some  time  after  1765.  Tradition 
states  that  it  was  so  large  that  a  four-horse  team 
could  be  driven  through  the  doors,  turned  around, 
and  driven  out  again,  and  that  it  was  surmounted 
by  a  huge  dome  ninety  feet  high — dimensions  that 
should  not  be  accepted  too  readily.  Stiegel  made  a 
trip  or  two  to  Europe  and  brought  back  with  him 
skilled  workmen  from  Germany  and  from  Bristol. 
After  some  small  manufacture  of  window  glass  and 
bottles,  the  major  operations  were  commenced  in 
1 768,  and  here  the  first  American  flint  glassware  was 
manufactured. 

By  1769  the  glass  factory  was  running  at  full  ca- 
pacity, with  thirty-five  glassblowers  employed,  and 
its  products  were  sold  in  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
New  York,  and  Boston.  The  Baron's  annual  in- 
come from  this  industry  alone  was  said  to  be  £5,000, 
a  tidy  sum  in  those  days.  In  August,  1769,  the 
Stedman  brothers  sold  out  their  interest  in  Manheim 
to  Isaac  Cox,  and  the  following  February  Stiegel 
bought  it  for  £107,  los. 

He  was  now  rated  as  one  of  the  wealthiest  men  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  he  certainly  lived  up  to  that  rep- 

[173] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

utation.  He  entertained  lavishly  at  his  various  resi- 
dences, and  on  one  or  two  occasions  George  Wash- 
ington is  said  to  have  been  his  guest.  To  give 
greater  scope  to  his  social  activities  he  built,  in  1769, 
a  strange  sort  of  tower  on  a  hill  near  Schaefferstown, 
Lebanon  County,  some  five  miles  north  of  Elizabeth 
Furnace.  The  hill  is  still  known  as  Thurm  Berg. 
The  tower  was  a  wooden  structure,  built  of  heavy 
timbers,  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid.  Its  dimensions 
are  given  as  seventy-five  feet  high,  fifty  feet  square 
at  the  base,  and  ten  feet  square  at  the  top.  Its  ex- 
terior was  painted  red.  On  the  ground  floor  were 
banquet  halls,  and  above  richly  appointed  guest 
chambers.  This  tower  or  "schloss"  came  in  later 
years  to  be  known  as  "Stiegel's  folly,"  and  fell  into 
ruins  soon  after  his  death. 

During  these  years  of  his  prosperity  the  Baron's 
tendency  toward  elaborate  display  became  more  and 
more  marked.  He  was  accustomed  to  drive  in  state 
from  one  of  his  residences  to  another  in  a  coach  drawn 
by  four  prancing  steeds  (coal  black  or  milk  white, 
according  to  varying  traditions),  guided  by  liveried 
postilions  and  accompanied  by  a  pack  of  baying 
hounds.  A  cannon's  roar  announced  his  coming  and 
departure  at  Thurm  Berg,  while  at  Manheim  he  was 

[174] 


Cotton-stem  wine   glasses,   enameled  tumblers,   and  tinted   sugar  bowls  in  the  Hos- 
tetter  Collection  of  Stiegel  glassware. 


Enameled  tumblers  and  mu^s.     Hostetter  Collection. 


BARON  STIEGEL  AND  HIS  GLASSWARE 

greeted  by  the  shouts  of  the  populace  and  the  music 
of  the  band  upon  his  housetop. 

But  with  all  this  baronial  splendor  he  never 
failed  to  act  the  part  of  the  lord  of  bounty.  He 
paid  his  workmen  well  and  was  greatly  loved  by 
them.  He  furnished  them  religious,  musical,  and 
intellectual  instruction,  and  was  perhaps  the  first 
American  manufacturer  to  engage  in  what  we  know 
as  welfare  work. 

And,  above  all,  he  was  a  staunch  supporter  of  his 
church.  At  one  time  he  had  a  note  of  £100  against 
the  Lutheran  congregation  at  Schaefferstown  which, 
in  a  moment  of  generosity,  he  cancelled.  In  1770 
he  aided  in  the  establishment  of  the  Zion  Church  at 
Manheim,  providing  the  lot  for  the  sum  of  five  shil- 
lings and  the  payment  of  "one  red  rose  annually  in 
the  month  of  June  forever,  if  the  same  shall  be  law- 
fully demanded  by  the  heirs,  executors,  or  assigns." 
The  legend  states  that  the  Baron  brought  a  rosebush 
from  England  and  planted  it  in  the  churchyard,  and 
that  this  same  bush  is  blooming  still. 

However  that  may  be,  the  "Feast  of  Roses"  has 
been  reestablished  in  Manheim.  In  1891  Dr.  J.  H. 
Sieling,  one  of  Stiegel's  most  indefatigable  his- 
torians, discovered  among  the  dusty  records  of  the 

[177] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

church  the  original  deed  bearing  the  unique  rental 
stipulation  that  had  been  forgotten  for  over  a  cen- 
tury. The  debt,  he  found,  had  been  paid  in  1773 
and  1774,  and  then,  with  the  Baron's  declining  for- 
tunes, had  been  neglected.  In  June,  1892,  payment 
was  resumed,  and  on  the  second  Sunday  of  each  suc- 
ceeding June  the  pretty  ceremony  has  been  conducted 
by  the  Zion  Lutheran  Church  at  Manheim.  A  red 
rose  from  the  churchyard  is  sent  to  one  of  the  Baron's 
descendants,  and  piles  of  roses  dropped  within  the 
chancel  rail  are  sent  to  the  hospitals. 

But  evil  days  befell  the  princely  Stiegel.  His  ex- 
travagant mode  of  living  began  to  tell.  The  market 
for  his  glassware  dwindled  as  hard  times  approached 
and  he  fell  more  or  less  a  victim  to  scheming  asso- 
ciates. The  clouds  of  impending  war  shadowed  all 
business  and  Stiegel  found  himself  in  a  state  of  bank- 
ruptcy. He  did  his  best  to  ward  off  the  inevitable, 
even  pawning  his  wife's  gold  watch  in  his  extremity, 
and  his  poorer  friends  rallied  to  his  support.  But  it 
was  all  in  vain,  and  on  October  15,  1774,  he  was 
cast  into  the  debtor's  prison.  The  hum  of  industry 
slackened  at  Manheim  and  Elizabeth,  and  the  once 
opulent  Baron  found  himself  mortgaged  and  penni- 
less. 

By  a  special  act  of  the  Assembly  he  was  released 

[178] 


BARON  STIEGEL  AND  HIS  GLASSWARE 

from  prison  on  Christmas  Eve,  1774.  Through  the 
sale  of  the  glass  works  and  most  of  his  real  estate, 
and  with  the  aid  of  his  friends,  he  was  able  to  raise 
sufficient  funds  to  satisfy  his  creditors.  But  his 
days  of  opulence  were  ended  and  his  costly  equipage 
sold.  Robert  Coleman,  who  had  gained  control  by 
lease  of  the  plant  at  Brickerville,  made  him  foreman 
of  Elizabeth  Furnace,  and  he  took  up  his  work  again 
courageously. 

At  first  it  was  hard  sledding,  with  all  industry 
crippled  by  the  outbreak  of  war,  but  in  1776  Stiegel 
procured  orders  for  cannon,  shot,  and  shells  for  the 
Continental  troops.  For  a  time  this  work  kept  the 
plant  running  night  and  day.  During  the  winter  at 
Valley  Forge,  Stiegel  kept  open  the  road  of  com- 
munication with  Washington's  army.  During  1777 
a  band  of  Hessians  captured  at  Trenton  (200  of 
them,  it  is  said)  were  sent  to  Stiegel  to  enable  him 
to  dig  a  canal,  a  mile  long,  to  increase  his  water 
power. 

Toward  the  end  of  1778  the  government  orders 
ceased,  and  Stiegel  again  faced  bankruptcy.  He  de- 
voted the  remnants  of  his  fortune  to  the  satisfying 
of  his  creditors,  and  then,  abandoning  all  his  dreams 
of  commercial  success,  he  established  a  modest  home 
in  the  parsonage  of  the  Lutheran  Church  at  Bricker- 

[179] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

ville,  of  which  he  had  once  been  a  munificent  bene- 
factor. Here,  at  the  age  of  forty-eight,  "a  thin, 
bent  old  man,"  he  settled  down  to  a  quiet  life,  gain- 
ing a  scanty  living  by  means  of  preaching,  teaching 
school,  giving  music  lessons,  and  surveying.  In 
1780  he  moved  back  to  Schaefferstown  and  in  1781 
to  Charming  Forge,  where  he  taught  school  and  kept 
books  for  the  factory. 

In  1782  his  wife  died  while  on  a  visit  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  on  January  10,  1785,  the  day  after  the 
death  of  his  brother  Anthony  at  Schaefferstown, 
Heinrich  Wilhelm  Stiegel  breathed  his  last  and  was 
presumably  buried  in  an  unmarked  grave  at  Brick- 
erville.  , 

Romantic  as  is  the  half-legendary  story  of  Baron 
StiegePs  career,  the  thing  which  has  kept  his  memory 
green  outside  his  own  section  of  the  country  is  the 
well  deserved  fame  of  his  glassware.  Fortunately, 
the  output  of  his  factory  was  so  great  that  a  mod- 
erate amount  of  it  is  still  in  existence,  not  only  in 
Pennsylvania  but  in  Boston,  New  York,  and  else- 
where, and  it  is  coming  to  be  more  and  more  highly 
prized  by  collectors. 

Glassmaking  was  one  of  the  early  industrial  en- 
terprises of  the  American  Colonies,  and  Stiegel  was 
by  no  means  the  first  to  engage  in  it.  But  to  him 

[180] 


BARON  STIEGEL  AND  HIS  GLASSWARE 

remains  the  credit  of  having  made  the  most  notable 
and  probably  the  first  fine  flint  glass  in  America. 
His  product  included  both  utilitarian  and  art  wares. 
For  the  table  he  made  cream  jugs,  pitchers,  sugar 
bowls,  tumblers,  wine  glasses,  large  flip  glasses,  rum- 
mers with  and  without  covers,  salt  cups,  pepper 
cruets,  dishes  and  plates,  vinegar  cruets,  champagne 
glasses,  mugs,  finger  bowls,  other  bowls,  molasses 
jugs,  caraffes,  and  egg  glasses,  all  of  better  quality 
than  any  hitherto  attempted  in  this  country.  These 
were  made  chiefly  in  four  colors — white  or  clear 
glass,  blue,  purple,  and  green,  beside  the  enameled 
ware.  The  blues  predominate  and  show  a  wonder- 
ful depth,  variety,  and  clearness  of  coloring.  They 
range  from  a  light  sapphire  to  the  deepest  shades, 
and  exhibit  undertones  of  green  or  purple  when  held 
to  the  light.  At  least  four  shades  of  green  are  to  be 
found  and  occasionally  pieces  were  made  in  olive  or 
amethyst.  Much  of  the  clear  ware  is  beautifully 
engraved,  and  some  of  Stiegel's  "cotton-stem"  wine 
glasses  rival  the  famous  examples  from  Bristol. 
There  were  also  made  a  few  flint-glass  articles 
flashed  with  a  thin  coating  of  white,  and  various 
two-colored  pieces — blue  and  transparent,  blue 
and  opaque  white,  amethyst  and  transparent, 
etc. 

[183] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Stiegel  also  made  window  glass,  sheet  glass,  bot- 
tles, flasks,  chemists'  tubes  and  retorts,  measuring 
glasses,  funnels,  jars,  jug  stands,  etc.,  as  well  as 
vases,  scent  bottles,  and  toys. 

The  relief  designs  found  in  much  of  the  Stiegel 
glass  were  made  by  blowing  it  in  figured  molds. 
Often  the  pattern  was  impressed  in  a  small  pattern 
mold  and  the  article  then  blown  in  the  open  air  by 
hand,  giving  such  pieces  a  distended,  asymmetrical 
appearance  that  is  far  from  displeasing  and  that 
gives  a  wide  variety  of  form  among  individual  speci- 
mens. The  commonest  design  is  a  diamond-shaped 
or  diaper  pattern,  and  many  pieces  are  found  with 
straight  or  twisted  fluting. 

The  quality  of  the  glass  is  such  as  to  render  it  re- 
markably vibrant.  A  bowl,  struck  sharply  with  the 
finger,  will  produce  a  clear,  rich  tone  for  fifteen  or 
twenty  seconds. 

StiegePs  enameled  ware  is  particularly  quaint  and 
interesting.  He  was  the  first  American  manufac- 
turer to  attempt  enameling  on  glass,  and  he  imported 
skilled  workmen  for  this  purpose.  Four  patterns 
used  to  decorate  tumblers  and  other  pieces  in  bright 
colors  are  the  most  common,  though  these  were  varied 
considerably  and  others  were  occasionally  used. 
Enameled  mugs,  steins,  glasses,  and  cordial  bottles 


BARON  STIEGEL  AND  HIS  GLASSWARE 

were  produced,  as  well  as  engraved  bottles,  tumblers, 
and  flips. 

The  most  noteworthy  collection  of  Stiegel  glass  is 
that  of  Mr.  Frederick  W.  Hunter  of  New  York, 
who  has  presented  it  to  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art,  where  it  is  now  on  exhibition.  There  are 
nearly  three  hundred  pieces,  altogether,  including  at 
least  fifty  of  the  remarkable  blues.  The  Pennsyl- 
vania Museum  also  owns  a  good  collection,  as  does 
Mrs.  Albert  K.  Hostetter  of  Lancaster,  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

The  question  of  present  values  is  always  of  prime 
interest  to  the  collector.  While  it  is  impossible  to 
be  exact,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  Stiegel  glassware  is 
worth  from  $5  for  one  of  the  smaller,  plainer  pieces 
to  $20  or  $25  for  one  of  the  larger,  more  elaborate 
examples,  while  $50  is  not  an  unheard-of  price  for 
one  of  the  finer  flip  glasses.  Not  long  ago  an  au- 
thentic Stiegel  tumbler  or  salt  dish  could  be  picked 
up  for  a  dollar  or  two,  but  the  interest  in  this  ware 
suddenly  increased  less  than  five  years  ago,  and  mar- 
ket values  advanced  very  sharply. 

A  few  collectors,  indeed,  pursued  their  quest  with 
such  zeal  that  as  high  as  $100  was  asked  for  a  single 
piece.  Prof.  Edwin  A.  Barber  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Museum  writes :  "Pieces  which  I  could  buy  for  $1.50 

[187] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

until  a  year  or  so  ago  are  now  quoted  at  $50  and  up- 
wards, which  is  ridiculous.  I  have,  however,  within 
the  past  few  months,  bought  quite  a  number  of  pieces 
at  reasonable  prices,  ranging  from  $5  to  $20  each." 

There  has  been  little  or  no  attempt  made  thus  far 
to  fake  Stiegel  ware,  though  it  has  not  been  uncom- 
mon for  similar  products  of  a  later  period  to  be  at- 
tributed to  Stiegel  by  dealers  and  collectors. 

Stiegel  glassware  is  distinguished  by  its  brittleness 
and  its  bell-like  resonance,  by  its  light  weight  and 
thin  texture,  by  its  brilliant  surface,  by  the  beauty 
and  uniformity  of  its  colorings,  by  the  quality  of  its 
relief  patterns,  by  the  decorative  quaintness  of  its 
forms,  and  by  its  hand-made  appearance.  As  ob- 
jects of  art  Stiegel' s  best  pieces  are  only  beginning 
to 'be  appreciated. 

Stiegel  was  an  eccentric  character  undoubtedly, 
and  he  was  an  able  man  of  business,  who  owed  his 
downfall  in  part  to  an  injudicious  ambition  and  in 
part  to  his  expensive  tastes.  But  above  all  else  he 
was  an  artist,  a  craftsman.  True,  he  employed 
workmen  of  the  highest  skill  and  training,  but  they 
produced  only  so  long  as  they  felt  the  stimulus  of 
his  inspiring  personality  and  enthusiastic  direction. 
He  alone  was  responsible  for  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished products  of  pre-Revolutionary  America. 

[188] 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE    VERSATILE    PAUL    REVERE 

SINCE  Fourth  Reader  days  we  have  known  of 
the  midnight  ride  of  Paul  Revere.  As  a 
patriot  and  a  soldier  he  made  a  place  for  his 
name  in  American  Revolutionary  history.  But  the 
collector  and  the  student  of  early  American  crafts 
finds  him  no  less  interesting  as  an  engraver  and  as 
the  designer  and  maker  of  some  of  the  most  ex- 
quisite old  silverware  that  has  come  down  to  us  from 
Revolutionary  times. 

In  the  recently  awakened  enthusiasm  for  Ameri- 
cana, old  silver  naturally  has  its  place,  and  in  that 
department  of  craftsmanship  the  interest  is  strongly 
focused  upon  Revere,  partly  because  of  his  character 
and  exploits,  partly  because  of  the  exquisite  quality 
of  his  workmanship,  and  partly  because  there  is  so 
much  of  it,  comparatively  speaking,  to  be  found  in 
private  and  public  collections. 

But  Revere's  activities  did  not  stop  even  here.  He 
was  a  goldsmith  and  an  engraver  and  a  publisher  of 
historical  and  political  cartoons.  He  was  a  manu- 

[191] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

f  acturer  of  gunpowder,  church  bells,  and  rolled  cop- 
per. He  even  kept  a  hardware  store  in  Boston, 
where  he  sold  jewelry,  picture  frames,  and  false 
teeth.  He  was  a  high  Mason  and  an  industrial  or- 
ganizer, a  Son  of  Liberty  and  a  colonel  in  the  army. 

Paul  Revere  was  born  in  Boston  January  i,  1735 
(December  21,  1734,  old  style),  and  lived  in  Bos- 
ton all  his  life.  He  was  the  third  of  twelve  chil- 
dren and  was  named  after  his  father,  a  Frenchman, 
who  was  christened  Apollos  Revoire,  but  changed 
his  name  to  Paul  Revere  after  coming  to  America. 

Paul  Revere  the  elder  was  born  at  Riancaud, 
France,  the  son  of  Huguenot  parents.  In  1715,  at 
the  age  of  thirteen,  he  was  sent  to  a  brother  in  the 
Island  of  Guernsey  to  learn  the  trade  of  goldsmith. 
He  came  to  America  in  1723  and  settled  in  Boston, 
being  apprenticed  here  for  a  short  time  to  John  Cony. 
On  June  19,  1729,  he  married  Deborah  Hichborn. 
He  was  successful  in  his  calling,  for  a  large  part  of 
American  wealth  in  his  day  was  centered  in  and 
about  Boston  and  there  was  a  growing  demand  for 
the  silverware  which  it  was  part  of  the  goldsmith's 
business  to  produce.  He  died  in  1754  an<^  n^s  w^e 
in  1777. 

Paul  the  son — the  man  known  to  history  as  Paul 
Revere — went  to  school  in  Boston  to  the  famous 


THE  VERSATILE  PAUL  REVERE 

Master  Tileston  at  the  North  Grammar  School. 
While  still  a  youth  he  entered  his  father's  shop  to 
learn  his  trade,  which  included  the  designing  as  well 
as  the  making  of  silver  pitchers,  ewers,  tankards, 
cans,  teapots,  spoons,  porringers,  etc.  It  also  in- 
cluded chasing  and  engraving,  and  at  this  young 
Paul  became  an  expert.  On  his  father's  death,  when 
he  was  nineteen  years  old,  he  took  charge  of  the  shop. 

He  joined  a  local  artillery  company,  of  which  he 
became  second  lieutenant,  and  in  1756,  when  he  was 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  he  was  sent  on  the  expedi- 
tion against  the  French  at  Crown  Point.  He  served 
for  six  months  at  Fort  William  Henry  on  Lake 
George,  but  saw  no  action. 

Returning  to  Boston  he  devoted  himself  whole- 
heartedly to  his  trade  and  began  turning  out  cred- 
itable silverware  of  his  own  designing.  On  August 
17,  1757,  he  married  Sarah  Orne.  She  died  May 
3,  1773,  after  bearing  eight  children,  and  five  months 
after  her  death  Revere  married  Rachel  Walker. 

The  silver  engraving  interested  Revere  so  much 
that  he  began  experimenting  on  copper  plate  also, 
drawing  some  of  his  own  subjects.  By  1765  he  had 
become  known  as  a  clever  if  somewhat  crude  carica- 
turist as  well  as  a  skilled  engraver. 

Although  we  are  at  present  interested  in  Paul 
[193] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Revere  chiefly  as  a  craftsman,  no  sketch  of  his  life 
can  well  be  presented  without  some  account  of  his 
patriotic  activities  in  the  early  days  of  our  national 
struggle  for  independence.  He  belonged  to  that 
group  of  young  and  ardent  patriots  who  kept  affairs 
in  Boston  pretty  well  stirred  up  for  a  dozen  years 
before  the  Revolution.  He  was  a  member  of  sev- 
eral patriotic  committees  and  on  December  16,  1773, 
he  took  part  in  the  famous  Boston  Tea  Party. 

He  was  an  accomplished  horseman  and  often  acted 
as  messenger  for  the  Committee  of  Safety.  Twice 
in  1774  he  rode  to  New  York  and  Philadelphia  to 
secure  support  and  cooperation  among  the  Colonies, 
once  carrying  with  him  the  Suffolk  Resolves — the 
forerunner  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

On  December  13,  1774,  he  carried  to  Portsmouth, 
New  Hampshire,  the  news  of  the  embargo  on  muni- 
tions of  war  and  the  British  plan  of  sending  a  strong 
garrison  to  Fort  William  and  Mary  at  New  Castle. 
As  a  result  of  his  warning,  the  New  Hampshire  Sons 
of  Liberty  armed  and  surprised  the  fort  on  the  night 
of  December  14,  capturing  one  hundred  pounds  of 
powder  and  fifteen  cannon,  which  were  later  used 
with  effect  at  Bunker  Hill.  This  was  the  first  or- 
ganized, armed  resistance  to  British  rule. 

Most  of  us  know  of  Revere's  famous  midnight 

[194] 


A  silver  tea  set  of  extraordinary  grace  made  by  Paul  Revere  in  1799  for   presentation 
to  Edmund  Hartt,  constructor  of  the  frigate   Boston.      Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston. 


Silver  sauce  pan  of  unusual  design,  by  Paul  Revere. 


THE  VERSATILE  PAUL  REVERE 

ride  from  the  poetic  version,  which  is  not  entirely 
accurate.  His  own  narrative  is  given  in  a  letter  to 
Jeremy  Belknap,  published  in  the  Collections  of  the 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society. 

Revere  was  at  this  time  a  vigorous  man  of  forty, 
an  active  member  of  the  Sons  of  Liberty,  and  one  of 
thirty  volunteer  night  watchmen  whose  duty  it  was 
to  keep  in  touch  with  the  British  movements  in  Bos- 
ton, both  military  and  political.  They  were  well 
aware  of  the  British  plan  to  raid  the  stores  at  Con- 
cord and  Lexington  and  on  April  18,  1775*  reported 
that  the  time  had  arrived.  There  was  also  a  price 
on  the  heads  of  Hancock  and  Adams,  who  were  at 
Lexington,  and  on  the  night  of  the  i8th  Dr.  Warren 
sent  William  Dawes  and  Paul  Revere  by  different 
routes  to  warn  them  and  the  patriots  at  Concord. 
Dawes  started  first,  but  arrived  later  than  Revere 
at  the  home  of  Rev.  Mr.  Clarke  in  Lexington,  where 
Adams  and  Hancock  were  housed.  It  is  hardly  fair, 
however,  that  all  the  credit  should  be  given  to 
Revere. 

Revere  set  out  from  Charlestown  at  about  eleven 
p.  M.,  riding  Deacon  Larkin's  horse.  The  incident 
of  the  lanterns  in  the  church  steeple  was  a  matter 
of  minor  importance. 

Not  far  outside  of  Charlestown  he  was  surprised 

[197] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

and  pursued  by  British  horsemen,  but  escaped 
through  Medford,  arousing  the  minute-men  along 
the  way.  He  arrived  at  Lexington  with  his  mes- 
sage about  midnight. 

About  an  hour  later  Revere,  with  Dawes  and  Dr. 
Prescott,  started  out  for  Concord.  They  had  not 
gone  far  before  they  were  surrounded  by  British  sol- 
diers. Prescott  promptly  turned  his  horse,  and  leap- 
ing a  stone  wall,  escaped,  but  Dawes  and  Revere 
were  captured.  They  started  back  toward  Boston, 
but  before  long  the  soldiers  became  alarmed  by  signs 
of  gathering  minute-men  and  relaxed  their  vigilance. 
Dawes  started  up  his  horse  and  dashed  down  the 
road,  hotly  pursued  by  three  troopers.  The  story 
has  it  that  as  he  approached  a  darkened  farmhouse, 
he  called  loudly,  "Hello,  boys,  I  've  got  three  of  'em," 
whereat  his  pursuers  turned  without  further  ado  and 
fled.  Revere  was  not  so  lucky.  His  horse  was 
taken  from  him ;  but  later,  in  the  confusion,  he  man- 
aged to  slip  away. 

On  the  following  day,  the  iQth,  occurred  the 
skirmishes  at  Concord  and  Lexington  and  "the  shot 
heard  'round  the  world."  Most  of  the  stores,  thanks 
to  the  timely  warning,  had  been  safely  hidden. 

Revolution  having  become  more  important  than 
business  to  Revere,  he  arranged  to  have  his  affairs 

[198] 


THE  VERSATILE  PAUL  REVERE 

in  Boston  cared  for  while  he  moved  to  Charlestown 
and  devoted  himself  largely  to  public  activities. 
There  were  more  important  journeys  on  horseback 
to  New  York  and  Philadelphia  and  there  was  mili- 
tary service. 

In  November,  1775,  Revere  was  instructed,  while 
in  Philadelphia,  to  inspect  the  powder  mill  there,  as 
Massachusetts  badly  needed  one.  The  owner  of  the 
factory,  jealous  of  his  rights,  would  not  give  the 
emissary  any  information  or  permit  him  to  make  any 
drawings,  though  he  allowed  him  to  walk  through 
the  plant.  Revere  kept  his  eyes  and  ears  open.  He 
possessed  a  working  knowledge  of  chemistry  and  of 
manufacturing  processes  in  general,  and  when  he  re- 
turned he  was  fully  prepared  to  engage  in  the  manu- 
facture of  gun  powder  for  the  Continental  Army. 
The  rebuilding  of  an  old  powder  mill  at  Canton,, 
Massachusetts,  was  begun  in  February,  1776,  and 
was  completed  in  May,  and  Revere  took  charge. 
He  was  able  soon  to  supply  tons  of  powder  for  the 
army. 

In  1776  he  was  also  employed  to  repair  the  cannon 
left  spiked  at  Castle  William  by  the  British  on  the 
evacuation  of  Boston.  In  July  of  that  year  he  was 
made  a  major  in  a  regiment  organized  for  local  de- 
fense, and  in  November  became  lieutenant-colonel 

[199] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

of  a  regiment  of  state  artillery,  in  which  his  son  Paul, 
a  lad  of  sixteen,  became  a  lieutenant. 

The  regiment  saw  some  service  in  both  Massa- 
chusetts and  Rhode  Island,  but  was  stationed  at  Cas- 
tle William  the  greater  part  of  the  time.  Revere 
was  in  command  of  the  fort  during  most  of  1778 
and  1779. 

In  1779  he  took  part  in  the  ill-fated  and  misman- 
aged expedition  to  Maine,  having  charge  of  the  artil- 
lery train.  Commodore  Saltonstall  failed  to  co- 
operate, discipline  among  the  state  troops  was  weak, 
and  the  expedition  was  broken  up  by  the  British  gar- 
rison at  Penobscot.  Very  likely  Revere  became  in- 
subordinate under  these  trying  conditions,  but  it  is 
not  to  be  believed  that  he  was  cowardly.  However, 
serious  charges  were  preferred  against  him  and  he 
was  removed  from  his  post  at  Castle  William.  He 
was  arrested  on  September  6  and  held  a  prisoner  in 
his  own  home  for  two  or  three  days,  and  then  re- 
leased. 

Revere  demanded  a  thorough  investigation  and 
would  not  remain  satisfied  with  semi-acquittals,  but 
it  was  not  until  February  19,  1782,  that  he  at  last 
obtained  conclusive  vindication  from  a  competent 
court-marshal.  His  personal  reputation  seems  not 
to  have  been  seriously  impaired,  but  his  chances  were 

[200] 


THE  VERSATILE  PAUL  REVERE 

spoiled  for  securing  a  coveted  commission  in  the  Con- 
tinental Army. 

The  year  1780  found  Paul  Revere  back  at  his 
trade  in  Boston.  During  the  war  his  business  had 
naturally  suffered,  though  he  had  profitably  con- 
ducted the  powder  mill  at  Canton  and  had  been  em- 
ployed by  the  Government  to  oversee  the  casting  of 
brass  cannon.  Also  he  had  been  engaged  to  super- 
vise the  making  of  our  first  national  paper  money. 
On  May  10,  1775,  the  second  Continental  Congress 
in  Philadelphia  voted  to  authorize  the  issuance  of 
two  million  Spanish  dollars  in  bills  of  credit.  John 
Adams  and  Benjamin  Franklin  were  members  of  the 
committee  which  gave  Revere  the  contract  for  en- 
graving and  printing.  He  constructed  his  own 
presses  for  this  work.  In  December  of  the  same 
year  the  Massachusetts  Provincial  Congress  gave  him 
a  similar  contract.  Revere  also  found  time  to  de- 
sign and  engrave  a  state  seal  for  Massachusetts  in 
1775,  and  a  second  one,  for  the  new  State,  in 
1780. 

He  was  now  forty-five  years  old,  with  a  wife  and 
eight  children.  One  son,  Paul,  had  learned  the 
goldsmith's  trade  and  another,  Joseph  Warren,  was 
associated  with  him  in  various  business  enterprises. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  trade  had  been  dull  and  a 

[203] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

good  deal  of  Revere's  money  had  been  tied  up  by  the 
war,  he  was  fairly  well-to-do. 

For  a  few  years  Revere  devoted  most  of  his  atten- 
tion to  the  rehabilitation  of  his  silverware  business. 
In  1783  he  opened  a  sort  of  jewelry  store — called  a 
"hardware  shop"  in  those  days — in  Essex  Street  op- 
posite the  old  Liberty  Tree.  Here  he  sold  gold 
necklaces,  bracelets,  lockets,  rings,  and  medals;  dies, 
seals,  etc. ;  silver  pitchers,  teapots,  spoons,  sugar  bas- 
kets, spectacle  bows,  knee  and  shoe  buckles,  candle- 
sticks, etc.  Many  of  these  things  Revere  made  in  his 
own  shop.  In  spite  of  the  hard  times,  a  fairly  good 
business  with  the  wealthier  families  was  developed. 
He  also  made  frames  for  Copley's  famous  portraits. 

In  1789  he  started  an  iron  and  brass  foundry  at 
the  lower  end  of  Foster  Street,  near  Lynn  Street,  now 
the  Causeway.  In  1 792  he  took  his  son  Joseph  into 
this  business.  They  began  the  casting  of  church 
bells  and  built  up  a  considerable  trade  in  this  line 
throughout  eastern  Massachusetts. 

In  1794  they  began  the  casting  of  brass  cannon 
and  the  manufacture  of  metal  fittings  for  ships. 
They  were  the  first  concern  in  this  country  to  smelt 
copper  ore  and  to  refine  and  roll  it,  and  were  very 
successful  in  the  handling  of  malleable  copper.  In 
1798  they  made  the  bolts,  spikes,  pumps,  etc.,  for  the 

[204] 


THE  VERSATILE  PAUL  REVERE 

United  States  frigate  Constitution — "Old  Iron- 
sides." 

In  1801  they  purchased  the  powder  mill  at  Can- 
ton and  commenced  the  erection  of  new  buildings 
there.  In  1802  they  furnished  the  metal — over  six 
thousand  square  feet  of  it — for  recoppering  the  dome 
of  the  State  House  in  Boston.  They  also  made  cop- 
per bottoms  for  seventy-four  new  gunboats  for  the 
Government. 

In  October,  1804,  the  roof  was  blown  off  the  fac- 
tory in  Boston  and  they  moved  the  works  to  Can- 
ton, retaining  business  headquarters  in  Boston.  In 
1809  they  made  the  copper  sheets  for  two  boilers  for 
the  Livingston  and  Fulton  steamboats  on  the  Hud- 
son River.  Joseph  Warren  Revere  continued  this 
business  at  Canton  after  his  father's  death. 

Paul  Revere  was  one  of  the  best  known  members 
of  the  Masonic  fraternity  in  America.  He  entered 
St.  Andrew's  Lodge  in  1760,  became  Master  in  1770, 
and  was  Grand  Master  of  the  Massachusetts  Grand 
Lodge  from  1795  to  1797.  In  this  capacity  he  as- 
sisted Governor  Samuel  Adams  in  laying  the  corner- 
stone of  the  State  House,  July  4,  1795.  He  made 
jewels  and  insignia  for  the  Masons  and  engraved  and 
printed  elaborate  membership  certificates,  etc. 

Revere  was  largely  instrumental  in  founding  the 

[205] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Massachusetts  Charitable  Mechanics'  Association  in 
1795  and  served  as  its  president  till  1799.  He  was 
also  one  of  the  incorporators  of  the  Massachusetts 
Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Company  in  1798. 

He  died  at  his  home  in  Charter  Street,  Boston, 
May  10,  1818,  at  the  age  of  eighty-three,  and  was 
laid  to  rest  in  the  old,  historic  Granary  Burial 
Ground.  He  had  been  successful  in  business  and 
left  a  fortune  of  $31,000.  He  was  distinctly  a  man 
of  the  times,  and  was  greatly  honored  in  his  com- 
munity. He  was  a  big,  virile  man,  active  and  in 
his  youth  fiery,  but  possessing  also  a  strong  vein  of 
artistic  feeling  and  creative  impulse. 

Apart  from  his  ability  as  a  manufacturer,  Paul 
Revere  was  a  true  craftsman,  and  his  craftsmanship 
was  threefold:  he  was  a  bell  founder,  an  engraver, 
and  a  silversmith  of  great  skill  and  talent. 

He  learned  the  art  of  bell  casting  from  Col.  Aaron 
Hobart.  Only  a  few  large  bells  had  been  made  in 
this  country  prior  to  1770,  including  the  historic  Lib- 
erty Bell  of  Philadelphia-  Revere  had  been  a  mem- 
ber of  die  guild  in  charge  of  the  eight-bell  chime  in 
Christ  Church  and  had  long  been  interested  in  the 
subject.  His  first  attempt  was  in  recasting  the  old 
bell  of  die  New  Brick  Church,  afterward  known  as 
the  Second  Church  of  Boston,  in  1792. 

[206] 


*c<re 

Revere's  bookplate,  drawn  and  engraved  by  himself. 


A  Revere  teapot  of  great  beauty.      Clearwater  Collection. 


THE  VERSATILE  PAUL  REVERE 

This  early  work  was  rough  and  unsatisfactory, 
but  the  subtleties  of  the  art  were  soon  mastered,  and 
by  1803  the  concern  had  cast  sixty  church  bells. 
Their  advertisement  read  as  follows :  "Paul  Revere 
and  Son  at  their  Bell  and  Cannon  Foundry  at  the 
North  part  of  Boston  Cast  Bells  and  Brass  Cannon 
of  all  Sizes  and  all  kinds  of  Composition  Work. 
Manufacture  Sheets,  Bolts,  Spikes,  Nails,  &c.,  from 
Malleable  Copper  and  Cold  Rolled.  N.  B.  Cash 
for  Old  Brass  and  Copper." 

In  1804  Revere  sent  his  son,  Joseph  Warren,  to 
England  and  the  Continent,  to  study  the  art,  and 
this  expedition,  together  with  their  own  experience, 
taught  them  how  to  perfect  their  product.  Their 
masterpiece  was  the  bell  cast  in  1816  for  old  King's 
Chapel  to  replace  the  one  that  was  cracked  in  tolling 
the  Peace  of  1814.  This  bell  was  paid  for  at  the 
rate  of  twenty-five  cents  per  pound.  Its  strong,  mel- 
low reverberation  is  still  to  be  heard  from  the  mas- 
sive tower.  Between  the  years  of  1792  and  1828, 
when  Joseph  Revere  ceased  casting  bells,  three  hun- 
dred and  ninety-eight  of  them  were  turned  out  from 
the  factory,  of  which  at  least  seventy-five  are  still  in 
use.  These  were  nearly  all  marked  Paul  Revere, 
Paul  Revere  &  Son,  or  Revere  &  Co.,  with  the  date. 
Paul,  Jr.,  the  eldest  son,  continued  in  business  with 

[209] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

his  father  until  1801,  when  he  started  out  for  him- 
self. His  bells  were  usually  marked  Revere,  with 
no  date. 

As  a  copper-plate  engraver,  Revere  was  self- 
taught,  and  between  1766  and  1775  he  turned  out 
considerable  work.  In  1765  he  engraved  the  scores 
for  "A  Collection  of  Psalm  Tunes,"  published  by 
Josiah  Flagg  and  himself  in  Boston.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  other  music  books,  book  illustrations,  seals 
and  book  plates,  paper  money,  portraits,  and  his- 
torical and  political  cartoons. 

As  a  caricaturist  he  gained  a  wide  reputation,  due 
as  much  to  his  cleverness  in  selecting  his  subjects, 
perhaps,  as  to  his  style  of  delineation.  This  style 
was  crude,  somewhere  between  Hogarth  and  the 
comic  valentines  of  a  decade  ago;  but  it  was  not  en- 
tirely without  merit  and  it  deserves  our  considera- 
tion because  of  its  place  in  the  history  of  the  art  of 
engraving  as  well  as  in  the  history  of  American  in- 
dependence. 

The  most  famous  of  the  old  prints  is  the  Boston 
Massacre,  published  in  1770.  With  the  inscrip- 
tions it  measures  eight  and  one-half  by  nine  and 
three-fourths  inches,  and  was  somewhat  crudely  col- 
ored by  hand. 

One  of  the  rarest  subjects  and  one  of  the  most 
[210] 


"  The   Boston    Massacre,"   the   most   famous   of   Revere's   engravings. 


"  Harvard    College,"   by  Joseph   Chadwick   and   Paul   Revere. 


THE  VERSATILE  PAUL  REVERE 

popular  when  published  was  the  Harvard  College 
group,  drawn  by  Joseph  Chadwick  and  engraved  by 
Revere. 

Others  of  particular  interest  are  the  Repeal  of 
the  Stamp  Act,  published  in  1766,  a  View  of  Bos- 
ton Harbor,  showing  the  location  of  the  British  ships 
of  war,  published  in  1770;  the  Landing  of  the  Brit- 
ish, published  in  1774.  In  all,  Revere  engraved 
three  different  views  of  Boston  Harbor.  He  also 
engraved  portraits  and  caricatures  of  prominent  men. 

In  1775,  when  Revere  was  commissioned  to  make 
our  first  national  paper  money,  copper  plate  was  so 
scarce  in  this  country  that  he  took  half  of  the  Har- 
vard College  view  and  engraved  the  new  bill  on  the 
back  of  that.  This  plate  is  preserved  in  the  archives 
of  the  Commonwealth. 

Other  special  work  by  Paul  Revere  includes  the 
seal  of  Phillips  Andover  Academy,  still  in  use;  the 
first  state  seal  of  Massachusetts,  made  in  1775,  and 
the  second  state  seal,  1780.  He  is  also  known  to 
have  made  a  number  of  bookplates,  though  only  a 
few  of  these  can  now  be  identified.  Among  those 
which  he  signed  were  bookplates  made  for  Gardiner 
Chandler,  David  Greene,  Epes  Sargent,  William 
Wetmore,  and  himself. 

After  1775  the  war  took  up  most  of  Revere' s  at- 
[213] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

tention,  and  after  1780  his  manufacturing  enter- 
prises, so  that  practically  all  his  engravings  are  pre- 
Revolutionary. 

The  illustrations  shown  herewith  are  the  famous 
Harvard  College  and  Boston  Massacre  views,  both 
the  property  of  the  Essex  Institute,  Salem,  Massa- 
chusetts. The  latter  has  been  copied,  both  honestly 
and  fraudulently,  but  only  three  or  four  authentic 
originals  are  known  to  be  in  existence,  though  there 
must  be  many  others  tucked  away  in  storerooms  and 
garrets.  Harvard  owns  one  of  these  originals,  for 
which  the  university  or  its  benefactor  is  said  to  have 
paid  about  $700. 

The  interest  in  Revere  silver  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  sixty-five  pieces  were  shown  at  the  splendid 
exhibition  of  American  silverware  at  the  Boston 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in  1906.  Nearly  every  col- 
lection boasts  its  Revere  pieces,  and  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  the  work  of  no  other  American  silversmith  has 
attracted  so  much  attention  or  is  valued  more  highly 
to-day. 

Paul  Revere's  silverware  is  distinguished  by  ex- 
quisite beauty  of  design  and  workmanship.  Its 
great  variety  of  form  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
illustrations.  His  style  was  based  upon  that  of  the 


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THE  VERSATILE  PAUL  REVERE 

English  silversmiths  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
known  as  the  Georgian  style,  but  he  added  thereto 
the  touch  of  his  own  master  hand  and  a  superb  feel-% 
ing  for  grace  of  line  and  proportion.  His  work  com- 
pares favorably  with  that  of  the  best  English  silver- 
smiths of  the  period. 

The  decoration  of  Revere  silver  is  of  equal  merit. 
The  old  Boston  families,  with  their  mingling  of  aris- 
tocratic and  democratic  tastes,  were  fond  of  crests, 
armorial  designs,  and  cartouches  enclosing  initials, 
names,  or  inscriptions.  This  gave  Revere  a  rare 
opportunity  to  exercise  his  talent  for  engraving  and 
repousse  work. 

The  fact  that  there  were  three  silversmiths  by  the 
name  of  Paul  Revere  has  occasioned  some  slight  con- 
fusion, but  by  far  the  greatest  quantity  of  ware  was 
produced  by  the  patriot.  That  attributed  to  his  son 
is  practically  negligible.  Some  of  the  work  of  his 
father  still  exists  and  shows  considerable  merit,  but 
it  is  exceedingly  rare. 

There  are  no  certain  rules  for  distinguishing  be- 
tween the  wares  of  father  and  son.  Practically  all 
the  pieces  bearing  the  signature  p.  REVERE  were  un- 
questionably the  work  of  the  father,  though  this 
mark  appears  also  on  a  few  pieces  that  bear  evidence 

[217] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

of  a  later  craftsmanship  than  his.  It  is  possible  that 
the  patriot  may  have  used  his  father's  mark  for  a 
short  time  after  the  latter's  death. 

The  father's  earliest  mark  consisted  of  the  initials 
P  R  in  a  straight-topped  shield,  surmounted  by  a 
crown.  Most  of  his  existing  work  bears  the  mark 
p.  REVERE  in  a  narrow  impressed  rectangle.  This 
mark  the  son  changed  slightly,  using  the  name  and 
narrow  rectangle,  but  leaving  off  the  initial  of  the 
first  name,  and  substituting  a  small  dot  in  its  place. 
This  mark  appears  on  most  of  Paul  Revere's  silver, 
but  occasionally  he  used  a  script  monogram,  PR,  in 
an  oval  or  rectangle,  especially  on  his  spoons. 

Paul  Revere's  most  famous  piece,  and  the  premier 
piece  of  silverware  in  this  country,  is  the  large  punch 
bowl  made  for  the  Sons  of  Liberty  and  now  owned 
by  Mr.  Marsden  J.  Perry  of  Providence.  There  are 
in  existence  a  few  other  pieces  of  historic  significance, 
but  for  the  most  part  Revere  produced  the  type  of 
domestic  ware  generally  in  fashion  at  that  time.  The 
early  American  silversmiths  and  their  work  will  be 
discussed  more  fully  in  another  chapter. 

It  is  impossible  to  place  a  correct  money  value  on 
Revere  silver.  Perhaps  $50  to  $100  an  ounce  comes 
fairly  near  to  an  average  estimate,  but  much  of  it  is 
practically  priceless. 

[218] 


CHAPTER  IX 

OTHER    AMERICAN    SILVERSMITHS 

THAT  silversmithing  was  one  of  the  most  ex- 
tensively practised  industrial  arts  in  this 
country,  not  only  in  the  eighteenth  but  also 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  is  evidenced  by  the 
amazing  number  of  men  engaged  in  it.  Mr.  R.  T. 
Haines  Halsey  has  collected  the  names  of  about  four 
hundred  who  plied  their  trade  in  Boston,  New  York, 
and  Philadelphia  before  1800,  and  Mr.  George 
Munson  Curtis  has  recorded  the  names  of  over  two 
hundred  who  worked  in  the  State  of  Connecticut 
prior  to  1830.  Add  to  these  the  names  of  those  in 
Baltimore,  Newport,  and  elsewhere,  and  the  list 
assumes  astonishing  proportions,  quite  at  variance 
with  our  ideas  regarding  the  poverty  of  the  Colonies 
and  the  young  nation. 

The  present  widespread  interest  in  American  sil- 
verware is  of  recent  development.  In  fact,  a  decade 
ago  the  notion  was  prevalent  that  most  of  the  old 

[219] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

silver  in  this  country  was  of  English  origin.  The 
splendid  loan  exhibition  of  American  silverware 
held  at  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in  1906 
was  largely  instrumental  in  dispelling  this  idea.  On 
that  occasion  three  hundred  and  thirty-two  pieces  of 
early  American  silverware  were  shown,  including 
the  work  of  some  ninety  silversmiths  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries,  and  the  American 
public  had  its  eyes  opened  to  the  excellence  and 
beauty  of  their  craftsmanship.  Again,  in  1909,  at 
the  Hudson-Fulton  Celebration  in  New  York,  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  American  silver  were 
on  exhibition  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  includ- 
ing the  work  of  forty  silversmiths  of  New  York 
State.  The  excellent  work  of  Mr.  R.  T.  Haines 
Halsey  and  Mr.  John  Henry  Buck  in  preparing  the 
catalogues  for  these  exhibitions  had  much  to  do  with 
our  present  knowledge  of  and  interest  in  this  subject. 
The  process  of  manufacture,  which  is1  described  in 
detail  by  Mr.  Halsey  in  a  footnote  in  the  Boston 
Museum  catalogue,  consisted,  briefly,  in  casting  the 
metal  in  sheets  thinner  than  an  ingot,  and  fashioning 
the  various  pieces  from  these  sheets.  They  were  first 
rolled  or  hammered  to  the  requisite  thickness,  cut  out 
with  shears,  and  hammered,  in  the  case  of  hollow 
ware,  over  a  mold  or  form.  The  finer  finishing  was 

[220] 


OTHER  AMERICAN  SILVERSMITHS 

done  with  the  hammer.  Handles,  etc.,  were  cast  in 
pewter,  lead,  or  sand  molds  and  finished  by  hand 
tools.  Engraving  was  the  principal  form  of  decora- 
tion relied  on,  with  some  repousse  work.  During 
the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  style  of 
these  decorations  was  for  the  most  part  armorial  and 
rococo.  The  older  ware,  which  was  made  from 
rolled  and  hammered  ingots,  presents  a  softer  sheen, 
more  pleasing  to  the  connoisseur,  than  the  harder 
polish  of  the  later  ware  made  from  thinner  metal 
sheets. 

"This  silver,"  to  quote  Mr.  Halsey,  "is  of  the 
period  when  the  ancient  geometrical  shapes  held 
sway  among  craftsmen;  when  purity  of  form,  sense 
of  proportion,  and  perfection  of  line  were  preferred 
to  elaborateness  of  design."  For  sheer  grace  of 
form,  indeed,  it  would  be  difficult  to  improve  upon 
the  best  examples  of  this  period. 

In  New  York,  Dutch  and  Huguenot  elements  en- 
tered into  the  development  of  style,  but  in  New  Eng- 
land the  ideals  of  the  Scotch  and  English  designers 
of  the  time  formed  the  basis  of  the  work,  producing  a 
sort  of  modified  and  simplified  Georgian.  But  the 
American  silversmiths  did  not  copy — they  created. 
They  made  no  attempt  to  reproduce  the  more  elabo- 
rate styles  of  English  baronial  and  ecclesiastical 

[223] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

plate,  but  worked  along  more  austerely  classic  lines, 
softened  by  the  magic  touch  of  native  artistry. 

Marks  on  American  silver  are  not  an  infallible 
guide  to  their  age  or  origin,  for  there  was  no  hall  or 
guild  in  America  such  as  exerted  so  complete  a  con- 
trol over  the  craft  in  England.  American  silver 
bears  no  date  letter  as  English  ware  does.  The 
American  silversmiths  did  mark  their  work,  however, 
and  pretty  generally  with  their  names  or  initials,  so 
that  the  questions  of  where  made  and  by  whom  can 
usually  be  answered  satisfactorily. 

As  a  rule  the  earliest  marks  were  fashioned  after 
those  used  by  the  English  silversmiths  of  the  period, 
and  consisted  of  the  initials  of  the  makers  enclosed  in 
shields  or  circles,  sometimes  surmounted  by  a  crown. 
Some  makers  also  used  personal  emblems,  such  as 
John  Cony's  rabbit  and  Andrew  Tyler's  cat.  After 
about  1725  the  initials  gave  place  generally  to  the 
full  surname,  often  preceded  by  the  first  initial  or 
the  given  name.  Mr.  Buck,  in  his  "Old  Plate," 
reproduces  the  more  important  of  the  American 
marks. 

Probably  the  earliest  piece  of  silverware  made  in 
this  country  was  the  spoon.  The  constantly  chang- 
ing shape  of  this  article  presents  an  interesting  study 
in  style  development  which  lack  of  space  forbids  our 

[224] 


Communion  cups  owned  by  the  Congregational  Church  at  Stratford,  Conn.  The 
six  caudle  cups  are  by  Cony,  Noyes,  and  Cowell,  the  two  beakers  by  Kurd,  and 
the  chalice  by  Dummer. 


Baptismal  basin  by  Kneeland   (Boston,  about   i?35);    caudle  cups  by  Dummer  and 
Dixwell.      Owned  by  the  Center  Congregational  Church,  New  Haven,  Conn. 


Alms  basin  by  Revere,  flagons  by  the  Burts,  beakers  by  Hull,  Dummer,  and  others. 
Owned  by  the  First  Church  of  Christ,  Marblehead,  Mass. 


OTHER  AMERICAN  SILVERSMITHS 

going  into  here — the  fig-shaped  bowl  and  hexagonal 
stem  of  the  seventeenth  century  followed  by  the  oval 
bowl,  flat  stem,  trefoil  handle,  and  the  rat-tail  junc- 
tion of  stem  and  bowl ;  then  the  rounded  stem,  with 
the  handle  turning  upward  on  the  front  side;  the 
double  drop  and  turned-down  handle;  after  1760 
the  pointed  ends  and  heart-shaped  bowl,  then  the 
round  ends,  and  the  fiddle  pattern.  This  develop- 
ment has  been  traced  very  minutely  by  Mr.  Luke 
Vincent  Lockwood  in  Country  Life  in  America  for 
December,  1913. 

Among  the  pieces  most  interesting  to  collectors 
are  the  porringers.  This  name  was  originally  ap- 
plied in  England  to  a  two-handled  cup,  often  with  a 
cover,  similar  to  what  became  known  in  this  country 
as  a  caudle-cup.  In  America  the  name  has  been  uni- 
versally applied  to  round,  saucer-like  vessels  with 
flat,  open-work  handles  or  "ears,"  which  were  made 
in  considerable  quantities  up  to  1825.  It  has  been 
variously  stated  that  they  were  used  for  eating  por- 
ridge, for  heating  liquids  over  lamps,  for  wine 
tasting,  and,  especially  in  England,  as  physicians' 
cupping  and  bleeding  bowls.  This  last  is  a  tradition 
that  dies  hard,  but  there  is  certainly  no  evidence  in 
this  country  that  the  porringer  was  ever  used  for  any- 
thing but  a  general  utility  table  dish.  Usually  only 

[227] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

one  or  two  were  owned  in  a  family,  while  actual  por- 
ridge dishes  would  be  likely  to  be  found  in  sets.  So 
far  as  our  evidence  goes,  the  porringer  was  used  on 
the  table  for  sauce,  preserves,  gravy,  etc.,  and  per- 
haps occasionally  for  some  beverage. 

At  any  rate,  the  porringer  is  a  quaint  vessel,  no 
longer  in  use  and  hence  definitely  belonging  to  an 
elder  day.  The  variation  in  the  patterns  of  the 
handles  forms  an  indication  of  the  period  of  manu- 
facture, and  this  development  has  been  studiously 
traced  by  Mr.  Lockwood.  In  depth  and  diameter 
these  porringers  varied,  too,  most  of  them  being  five 
or  six  inches  across,  but  some  larger  and  some  smaller 
than  that.  This  variation  in  size  and  form  is, 
indeed,  one  of  the  charms  of  old  silver,  and  is  easily 
explained.  The  silversmith  did  not  make  up  a  stock 
of  goods,  many  from  one  model,  and  though  he  often 
copied  his  own  patterns  there  was  always  a  greater  or 
less  variation.  Then,  too,  the  ware  was  made  usu- 
ally from  the  actual  coin  brought  in  by  the  customer, 
and  the  amount  of  this  often  determined  the  size  of 
the  piece.  No  two  pieces,  therefore,  are  exactly 
alike,  unless  ordered  at  the  same  time — a  condition 
which  never  fails  to  appeal  to  the  collector. 

Drinking  vessels  of  various  sorts,  with  and  with- 
out handles,  were  very  numerous.  Drinking,  as  a 

[228] 


Old  silver  beaker  from  New  York,  Dutch  type,  maker  unknown;    and  communion 
beakers  by   Dummer  and  Hull. 


A  remarkable  teapot  in  the  Clearwater  Collection.     Probably   made   by    Daniel 
Rogers  in  Newport  about  1750. 


OTHER  AMERICAN  SILVERSMITHS 

social  and  ceremonial  custom,  was  more  common  in 
the  eighteenth  century  than  it  is  to-day,  and  its 
equipment  was  somewhat  elaborate.  Tippling,  in 
fact,  was  a  prevalent  American  vice,  and  there  were 
the  proper  vessels  in  both  silver  and  glass  for  rum, 
wine,  beer,  cider,  toddy,  punch,  and  flip.  In  New 
England,  especially,  the  quantities  of  cider  consumed 
were  astounding,  the  good  fathers  apparently  living 
according  to  the  letter  of  the  text,  "Stay  me  with 
flagons,  comfort  me  with  apples."  There  were 
tankards,  six  or  seven  inches  high,  with  S-shaped 
handles,  straight,  tapering  sides,  and  hinged  covers; 
cans  or  mugs,  somewhat  smaller,  usually  with  curved 
sides  and  without  covers;  flagons,  like  larger  tank- 
ards, commonly  used  with  communion  services; 
tumbler-shaped  beakers,  chalices,  and  caudle-cups. 

Most  of  the  silversmiths  made  ecclesiastical  plate, 
including  communion  services,  alms  basins,  and  bap- 
tismal basins.  Many  of  our  older  churches  still 
treasure  their  original  pieces. 

Tea  and  coffee  pots  were  not  common  here  till 
about  1 730,  but  they  are  to  be  found  among  the  finest 
examples  of  the  Revolutionary  period.  The  teapots 
were  oval,  round,  bell-shaped,  pear-shaped,  conical, 
or  rectangular,  with  straight  or  S-shaped  spouts,  the 
earlier  ones  being  very  small.  The  first  coffee  pots 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

were  plain,  tapering,  and  cylindrical  in  form;  later 
examples  were  curved  and  more  ornate. 

There  were  beautiful  hot-water  urns ;  braziers,  the 
forerunners  of  the  modern  chafing-dish ;  candlesticks, 
rarely  found  to-day;  sauce-boats,  creamers,  salt  cel- 
lars, lemon  strainers  for  punch,  sugar  bowls,  punch 
bowls,  trays,  plates,  platters,  and  other  pieces,  most 
of  which  have  been  carefully  analyzed  and  classified 
by  Mr.  Lockwood. 

Of  the  silversmiths  themselves  a  large  volume 
could  be  written,  for  they  were  numerous  and  their 
position  in  early  American  society  was  an  honorable 
one.  Many  of  them  were  wealthy  and,  like  Paul 
Revere,  held  positions  of  importance  in  the  councils 
of  the  Colonies  and  of  the  young  nation.  Some 
lived  lives  of  adventure  and  romance.  In  the  pres- 
ent discussion,  however,  we  can  but  mention  a  few 
of  those  who  exercised  the  most  telling  influence  on 
the  development  of  their  craft  in  this  country. 

Boston,  in  those  days,  was  our  wealthiest  and  most 
cultured  port,  and  it  was  there  that  the  silversmiths 
thrived  in  the  greatest  numbers  and  produced  the 
largest  amount  of  silverware  to  be  found  to-day. 
Much  of  it  was  made  from  Spanish  coin  taken  in 
trade  with  the  West  Indies. 

[232] 


OTHER  AMERICAN  SILVERSMITHS 

Of  the  seventeenth-century  silversmiths  in  Boston, 
the  most  famous  was  John  Hull.  His  diary,  pub- 
lished by  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  re- 
cords the  life  of  a  successful  merchant  prince  of  old 
New  England.  He  was  born  in  1624  in  Leicester- 
shire, England,  came  to  Boston  in  1635,  learned  the 
goldsmith's  trade,  and  became  a  Freeman  in  1649. 
He  acquired  wealth  in  his  craft  and  as  a  merchant 
engaged  in  the  West  Indian  trade.  He  was  also  a 
banker,  like  other  men  of  his  calling.  He  was  active 
in  public  life,  serving  as  town  treasurer  in  1660,  as 
Representative  from  Wenham  in  1668,  and  as  treas- 
urer of  the  Colony  in  1676.  He  was  also  a  captain 
in  the  old  Artillery  Company.  He  was  a  man  of 
learning  and  a  devout  church  member,  being  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  old  First  Church  of  Boston. 

Antedating  Hull  was  Robert  Sanderson,  who  came 
over  to  Hampton  in  1638,  became  a  Freeman  in 
1639,  and  settled  in  Watertown,  Massachusetts.  In 
1652  and  General  Court  of  Massachusetts,  disregard- 
ing the  higher  Court  of  England,  ordered  that  a  mint 
be  set  up  in  Boston  and  appointed  Hull  mint-master. 
He  chose  Sanderson  as  his  colleague,  and  also  made 
him  a  partner  in  the  silversmith  trade.  They  ob- 
tained dies  from  Joseph  Jenks  of  Lynn,  our  first  iron 

[233] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

founder,  and  continued  for  thirty  years  to  coin  the 
famous  pine-tree  shillings.  Hull  died  in  1683  an<^ 
Sanderson  ten  years  later. 

Jeremiah  Dummer  (1645-1718)  was  the  son  of 
one  of  the  early  settlers  of  Massachusetts  and  was 
an  apprentice  of  John  Hull,  having  been  bound  to 
him  from  1659  to  1667.  He  became  a  man  of  im- 
portance and  substance  as  well  as  a  skilled  silver- 
smith. He  served  as  an  officer  in  the  artillery,  as 
selectman,  justice  of  the  peace,  treasurer  of  his 
county,  a  judge  of  one  of  the  inferior  courts,  and  one 
of  the  Council  of  Safety  of  1689.  ^n  1710  he  en- 
graved and  printed  the  first  paper  currency  for  Con- 
necticut. He  was  the  father  of  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor  Dummer  of  Massachusetts.  His  silverware 
was  represented  in  the  Boston  exhibition  of  1906  by 
twelve  pieces. 

The  next  eminently  prosperous  silversmith  in  Bos- 
ton was  John  Cony  (1655-1722).  He  was  a 
brother-in-law  of  Dummer  and  very  likely  learned 
his  trade  from  him.  He  was  an  engraver  as  well  as 
a  silversmith  and  is  supposed  to  have  made  the  plates 
for  the  first  paper  money  in  America.  Cony  was  a 
prominent  member  of  the  Second  Church  of  Boston 
and  in  1689  was  one  °f  t^le  °rigmal  subscribers 
toward  the  erection  of  King's  Chapel. 

[234] 


Mugs  or  cans  by  Andrew  Tyler  of  Boston  and  Caesar  Griselm  of  Philadelphia. 
Clearwater  Collection. 


Loving  cup  by  R.  Swan  and  a  plain  silver  tankard  made  by  Gary  Dunn   about   1780. 


OTHER  AMERICAN  SILVERSMITHS 

John  Edwards  (1687-1743)  was  the  son  of  a 
Boston  surgeon  and  a  man  of  education  and  high 
social  position.  He  was  a  maker  of  fine  silverware, 
with  a  shop  at  6  Dock  Street,  and  was  one  of  the 
wealthy  men  of  his  time.  The  inventory  of  his 
estate  showed  a  value  of  £4,840.  His  son  Thomas 
(1725-55)  carried  on  his  business  after  him;  his 
brother  Samuel  and  his  nephew  Joseph  were  also 
goldsmiths,  and  his  brother-in-law,  John  Noyes. 

The  most  interesting  Boston  silversmith  of  the  first 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  perhaps  the  finest 
craftsman  of  them  all,  was  Edward  Winslow.  He 
was  born  in  1669,  being  the  grandson  of  John  Wins- 
low,  who  came  over  in  the  Fortune  in  1623.  On  his 
mother's  side  he  was  descended  from  Anne  Hutchin- 
son.  He  received  his  goldsmith's  permit  from  the 
selectmen  in  1702.  He  served  as  constable,  tithing- 
man,  overseer  of  the  poor,  colonel  of  the  Boston  Reg- 
iment, captain  of  the  Artillery  Company,  sheriff  of 
Boston  from  1728  to  1743,  and  judge  of  the  Court 
of  Common  Pleas  from  1743  till  his  death  in 

1753- 

Other  Boston  silversmiths  whose  work  has  proved 

especially  fascinating  to  collectors  were  David  Jesse 
(died  1708),  John  Dixwell  (1680-1735),  James 
Turner  (middle  of  the  century),  William  Cowell 

[237] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

(1682-1736),  William  Cowell,  Jr.  (1712-1761), 
and  Andrew  Tyler  (1691-1741). 

After  Winslow's  day  the  trade  gradually  became 
concentrated  more  or  less  in  the  hands  of  the  Kurds, 
the  Burts,  and  the  Reveres. 

John  Burt,  who  died  in  1745,  '1S  thought  to  have 
been  an  apprentice  of  Timothy  D wight  (1654- 
1692).  He  was  a  prominent  Bostonian  and  very 
wealthy  for  that  time,  his  estate  being  appraised  at 
£6,460.  He  produced  a  considerable  amount  of  fine 
silverware,  being  represented  at  the  Boston  exhibit 
by  a  dozen  pieces.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  two 
sons,  Samuel  (1724-1754)  and  Benjamin  (1729- 
1804).  To  the  latter  we  are  indebted  for  a  large 
proportion  of  the  finer  ware  of  his  time. 

Captain  Jacob  Hurd  (1702-58)  was  one  of  the 
largest  producers  of  his  craft,  eighteen  examples  of 
his  work  being  exhibited  in  Boston  in  1906.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  sons  Nathaniel  and  Benjamin. 
The  former  (1729-77)  became  famous  as  a  copper- 
plate engraver.  He  made  portraits  of  prominent 
men,  English  and  American,  as  well  as  American 
scenes  and  bookplates.  The  old  Harvard  College 
bookplates  were  made  by  him.  Daniel  Henchman 
(1731-1775),  Jacob  Kurd's  son-in-law,  was  also  a 
silversmith. 

[238] 


A  teapot  by  Cony  and  a  coffee  pot  by  Winslow.     From  the  Clearwater Collection. 


Coffee  pots  by  John  Cony  and  Pygan  Adams. 


OTHER  AMERICAN  SILVERSMITHS 

Although  nearly  two  hundred  silversmiths  plied 
their  trade  in  New  York  prior  to  1800,  there  is  com- 
paratively little  old  silver  of  New  York  origin  to  be 
found  to-day  outside  of  the  old  churches.  While 
New  York  in  the  early  days  was  an  important  trad- 
ing center,  money  was  scarce  and  silverware  an  un- 
known luxury  in  most  of  the  homes. 

Up  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
New  York  silverware  was  chiefly  Dutch  in  style; 
after  that  the  English  influence  became  predominant. 
The  church  communion  services,  with  their  engraved 
beakers  and  later  chalices,  and  household  plates, 
mugs,  tankards,  flagons,  and  teapots  comprise  the 
major  portion  of  early  New  York  silverware  now 
extant.  The  tankards  were  especially  fine. 

Nor  do  the  names  of  the  early  silversmiths  of  New 
York  suggest  as  much  off  romance  or  historical  inter- 
est as  do  those  of  Boston.  They  were,  nevertheless, 
men  of  importance  in  the  community. 

One  of  the  earliest  of  the  Dutch  silversmiths  was 
Ahasuerus  Hendricks,  who  was  born  in  Holland  and 
came  to  this  country  at  some  time  prior  to  1675. 
He  held  the  offices  of  constable  and  collector  and 
was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church.  He  lived  in  Smith  Street. 

A  contemporary  was  Carol  Van  Brugh,  who  lived 

[241] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

in  the  Fort.  He  was  the  son  of  an  alderman  and 
himself  became  high  constable  in  1689.  He  was  the 
maker  of  a  gold  cup  presented  to  Governor  Fletcher 
in  1693. 

Le  Roux  was  the  name  of  a  family  of  Huguenot 
silversmiths  who  worked  in  New  York  for  over  half 
a  century.  Bartholomew  Le  Roux,  the  earliest  of 
them,  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Leisler  Rebellion 
in  1689,  as  did  also  John  Windower,  another  silver- 
smith. Le  Roux  later  became  a  constable,  assessor, 
collector,  and  assistant  alderman.  He  died  in  1713. 

Jacob  and  Hendrick  Boelen,  father  and  son  and 
also  partners,  were  Dutch  silversmiths  who  came  to 
New  York  shortly  after  1680  and  enjoyed  a  large 
share  of  the  trade  in  that  city  during  the  closing  years 
of  the  century.  The  father  was  an  assessor,  brant- 
master,  and  alderman. 

Among  the  earliest  native  silversmiths  were 
Jacobus  and  Johannes  Van  der  Spiegel.  The  for- 
mer was  an  assessor  and  constable.  Others  of  Dutch 
descent  were  Garret  Onclebagh,  an  alderman  who 
was  convicted  of  coining  money ;  Cornelius  Kierstede, 
a  man  of  high  social  connections  who  afterward 
moved  to  New  Haven;  Bartholomew  Schaats;  and 
the  Van  Dycks,  who  held  a  large  part  of  the  silver 
trade  for  half  a  century,  beginning  about  1700. 

[242] 


Brazier  by  Edward  Winslow. 


A  rare   piece   of   silverware — two-lined   fork   by   John    Noyes,   first   half   of   the 
eighteenth  century. 


A   brazier   made   by  Jacob    Hurd   of   Boston,   showing   exquisite   workmanship. 
Clearwater  Collection. 


OTHER  AMERICAN  SILVERSMITHS 

Peter  Van  Dyck  was  a  native  New  Yorker  who  may 
have  learned  his  trade  from  Bartholomew  Le  Roux. 
He  was  a  constable  and  an  assessor  and  withal  a 
craftsman  of  artistic  gifts  surpassing  those  of  most  of 
his  contemporaries. 

Charles  Le  Roux,  the  son  of  Bartholomew,  carried 
on  his  father's  business  after  his  death  and  also  fig- 
ured as  an  engraver  and  as  sealmaker  to  the  city. 
He  also  became  an  alderman  and  an  attorney.  His 
gold  and  silver  snuff-boxes  were  famous. 

Of  the  eighteenth-century  silversmiths  in  New 
York  there  were  William  Huertin,  a  Huguenot; 
George  Ridout,  who  came  from  London  in  1745; 
John  and  Peter  Targee ;  Richard  Van  Dyck,  son  of 
Peter,  whose  store  was  in  Hanover  Square ;  Cary 
Dunn,  who  worked  from  1765  to  1796  and  made 
popular  the  pineapple  style;  Adrian  Bancker,  Free- 
man Woods,  Myer  Myers,  Jabez  Halsey,  and  a  hun- 
dred others  of  greater  or  less  importance. 

In  Philadelphia  about  one  hundred  silversmiths 
had  been  at  work  prior  to  1800.  One  of  the  earliest 
was  Caesar  Griselm,  or  Ghiselin,  who  came  over  with 
William  Penn  and  who  made  silver  spoons  of  Eng- 
lish design. 

Among  the  most  prominent  silversmiths  in  Phila- 
delphia were  Philip  Syng  (1676-1739)  and  his  son 

[245] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Philip,  who  was  born  in  1703,  retired  in  1772,  and 
died  in  1789.  The  son  was  a  personal  friend  of 
Benjamin  Franklin  and  a  member  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society.  He  made  the  famous  ink- 
stand, now  in  Independence  Hall,  in  which  the  quills 
were  dipped  that  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. 

Others  whose  work  was  of  superior  quality  were 
John  Hutton  (1684-1792),  John  David  (1763- 
1797),  Elias  Boudinst  or  Boudinot,  who  worked 
about  1747  to  1749,  Joseph  Anthony,  Joseph  Shoe- 
maker, and  Daniel  Dupuy. 

Newport  was  another  town  where  the  craft  flour- 
ished, for  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  was  a 
wealthier  place  than  New  York  from  1726  until  the 
Revolution.  The  principal  silversmith  there  was 
Samuel  Vernon  (1687-1737),  who  made  quantities 
of  tankards,  pitchers,  porringers,  cups,  spoons,  pep- 
per shakers,  knee  and  shoe  buckles,  etc.  His  mark 
consisted  of  the  initials  S.  V.  above  a  clover  leaf  or 
cross  inside  a  heart.  Other  Newport  silversmiths, 
thriving  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
were  Jonathan  Otis  and  Daniel  Rogers.  After  the 
Revolution,  Providence  became  the  center  of  the 
trade  for  Rhode  Island,  the  prominent  names  being 
Saunders,  Pitman,  and  Cyril  or  Seril  Dodge.  To  a 

[246] 


OTHER  AMERICAN  SILVERSMITHS 

later  period  belongs  Jabez  Gorham,  born  in  Provi- 
dence in  1792,  and  founder  of  a  celebrated  house  of 
silversmiths. 

The  most  romantic  figure  among  the  Rhode  Island 
silversmiths  was  Samuel  Casey,  who  was  arrested, 
convicted,  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged  for  counter- 
feiting. The  night  before  the  execution  was  to  take 
place  he  was  rescued,  was  placed  on  horseback,  and 
escaped,  never  to  be  heard  from  again. 

As  Mr.  Curtis' s  investigations  have  shown,  the 
towns  of  Connecticut  supported  a  large  number  of 
skilled  silversmiths.  The  earliest  on  record  was  Job 
Prince  of  Milford,  who  died  about  1703  and  about 
whom  very  little  is  known.  In  Norwich  Rene 
Grignon,  a  Huguenot,  made  silverware  for  a  short 
time  between  1708  and  1715. 

New  Haven  was  the  city  of  first  importance  in 
Connecticut  for  this  trade,  with  Hartford  second. 
The  pioneer  in  New  Haven  was  Cornelius  Kierstead 
(or  Kierstede),  who  came  from  New  York  in  1722. 
Others  followed,  including  Captain  Robert  Fair- 
child,  Abel  Buel,  and  Ebenezer  Chittenden  in  New 
Haven;  John  Potwine,  Colonel  Miles  Beach,  James 
Ward,  and  James  Tiley  of  Hartford;  Major  Jona- 
than Otis  of  Middletown;  and  Captain  Pygan 
Adams  of  New  London,  who  was  a  prominent  mer- 

[247] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

chant,  church  member,  and  member  of  Assembly, 
and  one  of  the  best  of  the  Connecticut  silversmiths. 

The  trade  seems  to  have  thrived  more  or  less  in 
various  Massachusetts  towns — at  Newburyport,  Sa- 
lem, Worcester,  Roxbury,  Hingham,  and  Hull.  In 
Newburyport  the  Moulton  family  monopolized  the 
trade  for  one  hundred  and  twenty  years,  beginning 
with  William  Moulton  in  1690.  Joseph  Moulton, 
who  practised  his  craft  during  the  last  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  added  to  his  fortune  by  fitting 
out  privateers  to  prey  upon  British  commerce. 

Baltimore,  Albany,  Troy,  Trenton,  and  other 
cities  had  their  famous  silversmiths,  as  well  as  many 
of  the  smaller  towns.  In  fact,  almost  every  Amer- 
ican town  in  the  eighteenth  century  had  its  silver- 
smith, who  may  also  have  been  the  clockmaker, 
blacksmith,  or  innkeeper,  and  who  made  spoons  and 
silver  plate  to  order,  made  and  repaired  jewelry,  and 
did  engraving.  As  the  nineteenth  century  advanced 
these  local  craftsmen  became  fewer  until,  about  the 
middle  of  the  century,  the  trade  came  into  the  hands 
of  large  manufacturers. 

Collectors  have  fully  appreciated  the  beauty  and 
historic  interest  of  American  silverware  for  only  a 
few  years,  but  it  is  now  being  sought  for  more  ear- 
nestly than  that  of  English  make.  The  result  has 

[248] 


Silver  porringer  made  by  Samuel  Vernon  of  Newport,  about  1725.      Truax  Collection. 


Silver  sweetmeat   box  made  by  Winslow  in   1702.      Now  owned  by   Mr.   George   S. 
Palmer,   New  London,   Conn. 


OTHER  AMERICAN  SILVERSMITHS 

been  a  rapid  increase  in  values.  The  record  price  of 
$1,650  an  ounce,  paid  at  Christie's  in  London  for  a 
piece  of  Charles  II  silver,  has  not  been  approached 
in  this  country,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  such  inflated 
values  will  ever  be  reached  here.  Several  hundred 
dollars  for  a  single  tankard,  however,  is  not  uncom- 
mon, though  most  of  the  finer  pieces  are  out  of  the 
market  and  are  not  purchasable  at  any  price.  It 
would  be  almost  impossible  to  appraise  accurately 
rare  examples  of  Vernon's,  Winslow's,  or  Peter  Van 
Dyck's  work,  or  the  best  of  Paul  Revere's. 

As  a  rough  basis  for  the  valuation  of  ordinary 
beakers,  tankards,  porringers,  and  other  hollow  ware, 
the  following  figures  may  serve :  Pieces  made  up  to 
1750,  $20  or  more  an  ounce;  1750  to  1800,  $5  to 
$10  an  ounce;  1800  to  1840,  $1  to  $5  an  ounce. 
Plates  and  other  flatware  usually  bring  lower  figures, 
while  spoons  are  comparatively  common.  Eight- 
eenth-century spoons  are  worth  $8  or  $10,  and  nine- 
teenth-century spoons  $2  to  $3  apiece. 

With  such  values  current,  there  is  naturally 
a  temptation  to  counterfeit  old  silver;  but  while  a 
set  of  rules  for  determining  authenticity  could  be 
given,  none  would  prove  infallible.  The  only  safe 
way  is  to  secure  the  services  of  an  expert  in  making 
any  considerable  purchase. 


CHAPTER  X 

AMERICAN    PEWTERERS    AND    BRASIERS 

PEWTER  ware,  of  both  American  and  foreign 
manufacture,  was  very  common  in  this  coun- 
try from  1650  to  1800.  In  fact,  it  was  in 
more  general  use  here,  particularly  in  the  rural  sec- 
tions where  the  people  could  not  afford  much  silver, 
than  it  was  in  England.  After  1780,  and  especially 
after  1800,  there  was  a  tendency  to  vary  the  alloy, 
so  that  much  of  the  later  ware  cannot  be  classed  as 
genuine  pewter.  By  1825  its  use  had  been  prac- 
tically superseded  by  china  and  britannia  ware, 
though  it  was  made  in  limited  quantity  as  late  as 
1840,  not  to  mention  the  modern  reproductions. 

Pewter  is  an  alloy,  the  chief  ingredient  of  which 
is  tin,  with  usually  a  fairly  large  percentage  of  lead, 
though  copper  and  other  metals  were  used  to  some 
extent.  There  was  no  Pewterers'  Company  or  other 
guild  in  this  country  to  control  the  manufacture,  but 
the  alloy  was  much  the  same  as  that  required  in 

[252] 


r 


Ladle,  dish,  and  sauce  boat  in  the  Bolles  collection  of  American  pewter   at  the  Metro- 
politan  Museum. 


Pewter  plates  in  the  Bolles  Collection. 


AMERICAN  PEWTERERS  AND  BRASIERS 

England.  A  more  detailed  description  of  the 
material  and  the  processes  of  manufacture  is  hardly 
necessary  in  the  present  discussion. 

The  forms  and  styles  employed  by  American  pew- 
terers  followed,  in  general,  those  of  their  English 
contemporaries.  Much  pewter  was  imported  from 
England  and  it  was  natural  for  the  American  makers 
to  follow  its  style.  It  is  not  unlikely,  even,  that 
some  of  our  craftsmen  used  molds  imported  from 
England.  But  a  few  of  them  did  add  the  personal 
touch  and  developed  something  approaching  an 
American  style. 

In  general,  pewter  does  not  lend  itself  to  ornate- 
ness,  and  the  plainer,  simpler  forms,  recognizing  the 
limitations  of  the  material,  are  the  best.  Those 
which  attempted  to  ape  the  current  styles  in  silver 
failed  of  their  purpose.  The  best  of  the  American 
pewterers  understood  this,  and  their  work,  as  repre- 
sented by  the  plainer  candlesticks,  plates,  mugs,  etc., 
often  shows  a  fine  appreciation  of  form  and  finish 
and  the  artistic  possibilities  of  the  medium  in  which 
they  worked. 

The  earlier  ware,  with  its  hammer  marks,  its  hand- 
made look,  and  its  soft  luster,  appeals  most  strongly 
to  the  collector.  As  the  alloy  deteriorated  after 
1780,  so  did  the  forms,  becoming  slenderer  but  dis- 

[255] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

playing  less  of  the  robust  grace  characteristic  of  good 
pewter. 

All  sorts  of  domestic  utensils  and  many  other 
articles  were  made  of  pewter.  There  were  beakers, 
tankards,  flagons,  caudle-cups,  mugs  or  cans,  meas- 
ures, pitchers,  bowls,  plates,  platters,  porringers, 
sometimes  called  posset-cups  or  posnets,  ewers, 
basins,  candlesticks,  and  candle  molds.  Betty  lamps 
and  rush  lamps  were  usually  made  of  brass,  but 
pewter  lamps  for  whale  oil  or  camphine  were  com- 
mon. Pewter  salt  cellars  appear  to  have  been  some- 
what rare  here,  but  pewter  pepper  shakers  are  some- 
times to  be  found.  Old  pewter  teapots  are  very  rare. 
They  were  probably  not  entirely  successful  because 
they  would  not  stand  the  heat,  and  most  of  those  to 
be  found  are  of  some  harder  alloy  of  a  later  date. 
Pewter  spoons  were  common  and  followed  in  the 
main  the  contemporary  shapes  of  silver  spoons. 
Pewter  was  not  a  rigid  enough  material  for  forks. 

Pewter  communion  services  were  used  to  some 
extent  in  country  churches,  though  much  less  than  in 
Scotland.  A  little  of  this  ecclesiastical  ware  is  still 
treasured,  but  most  of  it  was  made  after  1 780  and  is 
not  pure  pewter. 

*    In  the  seventeenth  and  early  eighteenth  centuries 
much  of  the  household  pewter  was  made  not  by  pro- 

[256] 


...   «*4 


L.      if  '   '  >~-         I- 

i 
*        tlC 


American  pewter  jugs.      Bolles  Collection. 


Pewter  beakers.      Bolles  Collection. 


Jugs  or  flagons.      Bolles  Collection. 


AMERICAN  PEWTERERS  AND  BRASIERS 

fessional  pewterers,  but  was  cast  in  molds,  more  or 
less  crudely,  by  various  individuals.  There  were  a 
few  pewterers  here  as  early  as  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, however,  chiefly  English  craftsmen  who  settled 
in  Boston,  Salem,  Plymouth,  and,  somewhat  later,  in 
New  York.  By  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury there  were  native  craftsmen  at  work  in  all  the 
larger  cities. 

The  early  American  pewterers  followed  the  English 
custom  of  impressing  a  touch  or  trade-mark  on  their 
ware,  the  eagle  being  a  favorite  emblem.  Often, 
though  not  always,  this  was  accompanied  by  the 
maker's  name.  The  earlier  touches  are  generally  the 
clearest  and  best.  The  later  pewterers  often  used 
only  the  name,  and  many  American  pieces  bear  no 
mark  at  all.  It  is  therefore  often  difficult  to  deter- 
mine age,  maker,  or  authenticity. 

No  one  name  stands  out  as  that  of  the  master 
pewterer  of  the  period,  as  is  the  case  in  some  of  the 
other  crafts,  and  there  were  doubtless  many  skilled 
craftsmen  whose  names  have  been  lost  to  us  entirely. 
Mr.  Edwards  J.  Gale  has  compiled  the  longest  list, 
and  that  contains  only  forty- four  names,  dating  from 
1650  to  1825,  and  must  of  necessity  be  very  incom- 
plete. We  know  less  about  these  pewterers  than 
about  the  silversmiths.  For  one  thing,  theirs  was  a 

[259] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

humbler  and  less  remunerative  trade.  But  there 
are  a  few  whose  names  deserve  to  be  permanently 
recorded. 

At  first  Boston  was  the  principal  seat  of  the  man- 
ufacture and  distribution  of  pewter,  but  by  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighteenth  century  New  York  had  become 
a  close  rival  and  there  were  other  places  where  the 
trade  flourished.  Mr.  Gale  gives  the  names  of 
twenty-one  New  York  pewterers  and  only  fourteen 
Bostonians,  but  that  is  partly  because  of  the  accessi- 
bility of  the  New  York  names  in  the  city  directories 
of  1786  and  after.  Two  of  the  most  important  of 
all — Boardman  and  Danforth — lived  in  Hartford, 
Connecticut. 

The  name  Boardman  is  one  that  appears  fre- 
quently on  pewter  and  may  give  rise  to  some  confu- 
sion. In  the  first  place,  there  was  a  well-known 
pewterer  named  Thomas  Boardman,  who  was  at 
work  in  London  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  His  work,  however,  being  of  an  earlier 
period,  can  easily  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
American  Boardmans.  He  also  used  a  different 
touch,  with  the  name  Boardman  or  Thomas  Board- 
man. 

In  the  second  place,  there  was  more  than  one 
Boardman  concern  in  this  country.  In  the  New 

[260] 


AMERICAN  PEWTERERS  AND  BRASIERS 

York  Directory  of  1824  the  name  appears  as  Timo- 
thy Boardman  &  Co.,  at  173  Water  Street.  In  the 
1828  directory,  Boardman  &  Hart  are  found  at  178 
Water  Street — probably  the  same  Boardman.  In 
1832  they  appear  to  have  moved  to  Burling  Slip, 
where  they  made  britannia  ware  until  1841.  Some 
of  their  ware  was  marked  with  the  firm  name. 

The  most  famous  pewterer  of  the  name,  however, 
was  Thomas  D.  Boardman  of  Hartford,  who  did  his 
best  work  about  1825.  Only  his  earlier  ware  is 
worth  consideration,  for  much  of  his  metal  is  of 
inferior  quality  and  he  soon  went  into  the  britannia 
business.  On  his  larger  ware  his  mark  was  an  eagle 
with  Thomas  D.  above  and  Boardman  below.  On 
his  smaller  ware  he  used  a  different  eagle,  with 
T.  D.  B.  below.  The  word  Hartford  in  a  plain 
rectangle  generally  appears  as  a  separate  mark. 

Samuel  Danforth,  also  of  Hartford,  worked  some- 
what earlier  in  the  nineteenth  century.  His  touch 
was  a  spread  eagle  with  Samuel  above  and  Danforth 
below,  accompanied  by  the  word  Hartford  in  a  sep- 
arate rectangle.  He  also  frequently  used  hall-marks 
consisting  of  his  initials,  a  spread  eagle,  and  an  eight- 
pointed  star,  arranged  in  a  row. 

The  Gallatin  Reformed  Church  of  Mount  Ross, 
New  York,  owns  two  beakers,  a  plate,  and  a  flagon 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

by  Boardman,  as  well  as  a  plate  by  Henry  Will 
(New  York,  1765-86).  Two  Danforth  beakers 
are  owned  by  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Orange,  New  Jersey. 

Though  the  names  of  Boardman  and  Danforth  are 
as  well  known  as  any,  their  work  should  not  be 
ranked  high  either  in  respect  to  age  or  quality.  In 
fact,  some  of  our  finest  pewter  is  by  unknown 
makers. 

The  earliest  American  pewterers  on  record  were 
the  following,  all  in  Boston:  Thomas  Bumsteed, 
1654;  Thomas  Clarke,  1683;  J°nn  Comer,  1678; 
Henry  Shrimpton,  1660-5;  an<^  Richard  Graves, 
1639,  who  appears  to  have  worked  also  in  Salem. 
The  dates  indicate  the  earliest  mention  of  their 
names. 

In  the  Revolutionary  period  Thomas  Badger  was 
a  pewterer  of  some  prominence.  He  had  a  shop  on 
Prince  Street,  and  his  name  appears  in  the  Boston 
directories  from  1789  to  1810.  His  touch  was 
round  at  the  top  and  square  at  the  bottom,  with 
Thomas  above  a  spread  eagle  and  Badger  below. 
He  also  used  the  separate  stamp,  Boston. 

It  has  been  stated  that  Paul  Revere  added  pewter- 
making  to  his  many  other  accomplishments,  but  I 
have  discovered  no  evidence  of  it. 

[262] 


Pepper  shakers  of  American  pewter.      Bolles  Collection. 


Five  pewter  porringers  and  a  strainer.      Bolles  Collection. 


AMERICAN  PEWTERERS  AND  BRASIERS 

Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  Mary  Jackson,  at 
the  Sign  of  the  Tankard,  Cornhill,  had  one  of  the 
largest  pewtering  establishments  in  Boston.  It  was 
famous  for  its  porringers. 

Not  much  more  is  known  about  the  New  York 
pewterers  than  about  those  of  Boston.  In  1743, 
John  Halden  advertised  pewter  ware  made  and  sold 
at  his  shop  at  Market  Slip.  In  1744,  James  Leddel 
was  selling  pewter  at  the  Sign  of  the  Platter,  in 
Dock  Street;  at  the  end  of  that  year  he  moved  to  the 
foot  of  Wall  Street.  In  1745  we  find  Robert  Boyle 
dealing  in  pewter  ware  at  the  Sign  of  the  Gilt  Dish 
in  Dock  Street.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  if  Leddel 
or  Boyle  manufactured  extensively. 

The  only  pewterers  mentioned  by  trade  in  New 
York's  first  City  Directory  in  1786  were  Francis  Bas- 
set, 218  Queen  Street,  William  Kirkby,  23  Dock 
Street,  and  Henry  Will,  3  Water  Street.  In  1794 
we  find  the  trades  of  plumber  and  pewterer  combined 
in  an  advertisement  of  Malcolm  McEwen  &  Son, 
Water  Street  and  Beekman  Slip. 

Philadelphia's  earliest  known  pewterers  were 
James  Everett  and  Simon  Edgell,  first  mentioned 
about  1718.  There  was  also  a  Cornelius  Bradford 
before  the  Revolution,  but  most  of  the  names  belong 
to  the  later  period.  Charlotte  Hero,  widow,  230 

[265] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

North  Second  Street,  and  William  Will,  66  North 
Second  Street,  are  given  as  pewterers  in  the  Phila- 
delphia Directory  of  1796.  The  names  of  C.  &  I. 
Hera — probably  the  same  as  Hero — appear  again  in 
the  Philadelphia  Directory  of  1810.  Three  plates 
made  by  this  firm  are  owned  by  the  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  together  with  other  old  American 
pewter. 

Providence  supported  several  pewterers  of  distinc- 
tion, notably  William  Calder,  of  166  North  Main 
Street,  and  Samuel  E.  Hamlin,  109  North  Main 
Street.  Both  are  mentioned  in  the  Providence  Di- 
rectory of  1824,  though  Hamlin  at  least  was  at  work 
several  years  before  that.  At  about  the  same  time 
G.  Richardson  was  a  pewterer  at  Cranston,  R.  I. 
All  three  used  the  eagle  in  their  touches.  Pewter 
was  also  made  in  Baltimore,  Cincinnati,  and  else- 
where, but  no  records  have  been  gathered  of  the  pew- 
terers. 

Though  pewter  was  very  common  during  the 
eighteenth  century  there  is  less  of  it  to  be  found  to- 
day than  might  be  supposed.  Quantities  of  it  were 
melted  up  in  the  stern  days  of  '76  and  were  turned 
into  Revolutionary  bullets,  and  much  of  the  later 
ware  found  its  way  to  the  junk  heap  when  pewter 
went  out  of  fashion. 

[266] 


AMERICAN  PEWTERERS  AND  BRASIERS 

American  pewter,  therefore,  is  well  worth  collect- 
ing, particularly  the  earlier  ware.  Of  course,  some 
discrimination  should  be  exercised,  as  not  all  of  it 
was  good  in  form  or  finish. 

When  obtainable,  American  pewter  is  not  exces- 
sively valuable  to-day.  The  hollow  ware  is  worth 
rather  more  than  the  flatware.  Tankards  are  worth 
from  $8  or  $9  apiece  to  $15  or  $18,  according  to 
age  and  style.  Teapots  are  worth  from  $10  to  $20 
if  genuine  pewter;  the  later  alloys  have  little  value. 
Sugar  bowls  and  porringers  are  worth  $4  or  $5, 
pepper  shakers  $2  or  $3,  plain  bowls  about  $2,  and 
spoons  $1  or  $2  for  the  ordinary  types.  The 
smaller  plates  may  often  be  bought  for  $1  each,  and 
are  seldom  worth  over  $3  or  $4.  Medium-sized 
plates  and  trenchers  are  worth  from  $3  to  $6,  and 
the  largest  plates  and  platters  from  $6  to  $10. 

In  spite  of  these  comparatively  low  prices,  pewter 
has  been  faked  to  a  considerable  extent.  Pewter- 
making  is  not  a  lost  art,  and  counterfeiters  have  dis- 
covered how  to  make  it  look  old.  Some  of  it  has 
even  been  made  from  the  original  molds,  and  the 
counterfeit  is  not  at  all  easy  to  detect.  Within  the 
past  ten  or  fifteen  years  there  has  been  a  considerable 
traffic  in  bogus  jugs,  flagons,  porringers,  plates,  pep- 
per shakers,  spoons,  and  whale-oil  lamps.  While  it 

[267] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

is  frequently  possible  for  the  expert  to  detect  the 
fraud,  the  average  collector  will  do  well  to  verify  the 
individual  history  of  the  piece  he  purchases. 

COPPERSMITHS    AND    BRASIERS 

Of  the  early  American  coppersmiths  and  brasiers 
even  less  is  known  than  of  the  pewterers,  though 
there  were  doubtless  several  of  them  among  our  early 
immigrants.  During  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century  a  number  of  them  came  from  England  and 
settled  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  and  there 
were  evidently  Dutch  and  German  brasiers  in  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania.  They  employed  largely 
the  forms  in  vogue  in  the  old  countries,  so  that  their 
work  is  not  readily  distinguished  from  the  imported 
ware.  By  the  middle  of  the  century  we  were  mak- 
ing a  large  part  of  the  brass  and  copper  ware  used 
here. 

Among  the  brass  articles  that  were  made  in  this 
country  were  tea-kettles,  jugs,  sugar  bowls,  milk 
cans,  pitchers,  big  round  kettles,  pipkins  or  coal  scut- 
tles, fenders,  andirons  and  fire  sets,  braziers,  whale- 
oil  and  camphine  lamps,  candlesticks,  door  knockers, 
snuffers  and  candle  trays,  tobacco  boxes,  thimbles, 
drawer  pulls,  handles  and  scutcheons,  hinges,  locks, 
eagle  ornaments  for  Revolutionary  accoutrements, 

[268] 


\ 


Early  trefid  spoon  and  five  later  ones.      Bolles  Collection. 


American  pewter  lamps.     Bolles  Collection. 


AMERICAN  PEWTERERS  AND  BRASIERS 

and  buttons.  About  1780  the  character  of  the  brass 
ware  changed  somewhat  owing  to  the  introduction 
of  a  new  method  of  casting  the  copper  and  zinc  to- 
gether. 

Much  of  the  old  brass  and  copper  ware  was  made 
by  obscure  local  craftsmen  whose  names  have  not 
been  preserved.  One  of  the  earliest  brasiers  on  rec- 
ord here  was  Henry  Shrimpton  of  Boston,  who  died 
in  1665.  Another  famous  New  England  brasier 
was  Jonathan  Jackson,  wrho  died  in  1 736.  He  made 
brass  pots,  kettles,  skillets,  hand  basins,  plates, 
saucers,  spoons,  knockers,  candlesticks,  stirrups, 
spurs,  staples,  fire-dogs  or  andirons,  and  warming- 
pans.  At  his  death  he  left  a  fortune  of  over 
£8,000.  His  widow,  Mary  Jackson,  and  his 
son  William  continued  the  business  at  the  Brazier's 
Head,  Cornhill,  Boston,  though  they  may  not  have 
manufactured  anything.  Edward  Jackson,  another 
member  of  the  family,  was  also  a  brasier. 

In  New  York  we  find  this  advertisement  dated 
1743:  "John  Halden,  brasier,  from  London,  near 
the  old  Market  Slip  in  New  York,  makes  and  sells 
all  sorts  of  copper  and  brass  kettles,  tea-kettles,  cof- 
fee potts,  pye  pans,  warming  pans,  and  all  sorts  of 
copper  and  brass  ware,  also  sells  all  sorts  of  hard 
metal  and  pewter  wares." 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

The  1 786  New  York  Directory  gives  the  names  of 
James  Kip,  59  Broadway,  and  Abram  Montayne, 
13  King  Street,  brass  founders. 

In  1802  a  brass  foundry  called  Probes'  Furnace 
was  set  up  in  West  Liberty,  Pennsylvania,  by  an  Al- 
satian who  made  many  kinds  of  brass  and  copper 
vessels. 

Such  are  the  meager  accounts  that  have  come 
down  to  us  of  the  brasiers.  Most  of  them  were  also 
coppersmiths.  Of  those  who  worked  in  copper,  Paul 
Revere  &  Son  were  the  most  notable  examples. 

Though  many  of  our  copper  utensils  were  im- 
ported, it  is  probable  that  local  coppersmiths  made 
tea  kettles,  warming-pans,  ladles,  kettles,  basins,  can- 
dle-sticks, measures,  cans,  and  pots.  American  cop- 
per hot-water  urns  are  very  rare.  Copper  chafing- 
dishes  and  braziers,  with  tea-kettle  and  charcoal  pan, 
were  made  by  the  Reveres.  They  were  usually 
called  copper  furnaces.  A  very  fine  one,  of  hand- 
some design,  is  owned  by  the  Concord  Antiquarian 
Society. 

While  every  collector  appreciates  the  beauty  of 
old  brass  and  copper,  it  is  rather  difficult  to  attempt 
making  a  specialty  of  American  ware.  The  same  is 
true  of  Sheffield  plate,  which  was  probably  not  made 
in  this  country  at  all  until  after  1800. 

[272] 


CHAPTER  XI 

EARLY    AMERICAN    POTTERS 

THE  history  of  American  ceramics  tells  a  story 
of  slower  development  than  that  of  most  of 
the  other  industrial  arts.  Building  bricks 
were  made  in  Virginia  as  early  as  1612,  and  in  New 
England  about  1641;  coarse  earthenware  was  made 
in  several  places  late  in  the  seventeenth  century; 
white  ware  was  first  manufactured  at  Burlington, 
New  Jersey,  about  1684;  terra  cotta  roofing  tiles 
were  made  in  Pennsylvania  prior  to  1740.  But  no 
pottery  of  any  consequence  was  made  here  till  after 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  most 
significant  part  of  the  history  lies  within  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Hard  porcelain  was  not  manufac- 
tured in  America  till  1825. 

During  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  times  table- 
ware was  imported  from  England,  France,  and 
China,  and  it  is  for  that  reason  that  most  of  our  col- 

[273] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

lecting  has  been  of  English,  Canton,  and  Sevres 
wares.  Staffordshire  tableware  especially  was  made 
in  large  quantities  for  the  American  market,  and  it 
was  apparently  difficult,  with  this  competition,  for 
American  manufacturers  to  get  a  foothold. 

Nevertheless,  with  the  awakening  interest  in 
American  antiquities,  greater  attention  is  now  being 
paid  to  such  early  American  pottery  as  exists.  Thus 
far  the  demand  has  been  for  Bennington  and  other 
of  the  later  wares,  but  the  Pennsylvania  slip-deco- 
rated ware  and  some  of  the  earlier  pottery  is  now 
coming  to  the  front. 

Little  or  nothing  is  known  of  the  potters  who  op- 
erated the  small  kilns  that  turned  out  the  coarse 
domestic  earthenware  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Previous  to  1649  there  were  a  number  of  such 
humble  potters  in  Virginia,  and  the  Dutch  settlers 
of  Manhattan  produced  a  ware  not  unlike  Delft. 
In  1683  a  P°tter  and  glassmaker  by  the  name  of 
Joshua  Tittery  came  to  Pennsylvania  to  practice 
his  art,  and  in  1690  there  was  at  least  one  potter  and 
one  maker  of  clay  tobacco  pipes  in  Philadelphia. 

In  New  England  John  Pride  of  Salem  was  regis- 
tered as  a  potter  as  early  as  1641,  and  soon  after 
there  was  a  flourishing  brick  and  tile  works  at  Dan- 
vers.  Here  William  Osborne  started  in  business 

[274] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  POTTERS 

and  for  two  centuries  he  and  his  descendants  carried 
on  the  manufacture  of  plain  earthenware  or  red  clay 
pottery. 

About  1684,  Dr.  Daniel  Coxe  of  London,  one  of 
the  proprietors  and  later  Governor  of  West  New 
Jersey,  caused  a  pottery  to  be  erected  at  Burlington, 
New  Jersey,  which  was  conducted  by  John  Tatham, 
his  agent,  and  Daniel  Coxe,  Jr.,  his  son.  They  were 
probably  the  first  to  make  whiteware  in  the  Colonies, 

For  fifty  years  the  industry  seems  to  have  been 
more  or  less  at  a  standstill,  though  the  obscure  mak- 
ers of  plain  earthenware  continued  to  flourish  in 
many  parts  of  the  country.  Then,  in  1735,  John 
Remmey,  a  German,  started  a  stoneware  factory  in 
New  York.  This  business  was  continued  by  three 
generations  of  John  Remmeys  and  was  discontinued 
about  1820.  In  1742  the  firm  name  of  Remmey  & 
Crolius  appears,  and  after  1762  Clarkson  Crolius 
conducted  a  similar  business  on  his  own  account. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  all  the  early 
American  pottery  is  the  slip-decorated  and  sgraffito 
ware  made  in  eastern  Pennsylvania  from  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  or  possibly  before 
that,  until  well  into  the  nineteenth.  This  ware  was 
made  chiefly  by  Germans  who  brought  their  methods 
and  designs  with  them  from  the  Rhine.  There  were 

[277] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

a  few  English  potters  among  them,  undoubtedly,  but 
dishes  bearing  English  legends  are  very  rare.  The 
Pennsylvania  Museum  has  collected  a  large  number 
of  good  examples  of  the  ware,  which  has  recently  be- 
gun to  attract  the  attention  of  private  collectors  as 
well. 

The  slipware  is  a  common  red,  brown,  or  buff  pot- 
tery upon  which  the  decoration  was  applied  in  the 
form  of  a  clay  batter  poured  through  a  quill  and  al- 
lowed to  dry  before  firing.  This  "slip"  was  cream 
colored,  or  tinted  green,  blue,  pink,  etc.  The  de- 
signs consisted  of  crude  representations  of  men  and 
women,  birds,  beasts,  and  flowers — the  tulip  pre- 
dominating— executed  in  a  sort  of  futurist  style  and 
often  accompanied  by  dates,  names,  and  legends. 
Cooking  pots,  vinegar  and  molasses  jugs,  jars,  tea 
caddies,  mugs,  pitchers,  coffee  pots,  sugar  bowls,  pie 
plates,  meat  and  vegetable  dishes,  bowls,  and  toys 
were  made  in  this  ware. 

The  sgraffito  was  a  similar  earthenware,  coated 
with  a  lighter-colored  slip,  in  which  the  decorations 
were  scratched  or  incised,  exposing  the  darker  body 
below.  A  transparent  glaze  was  then  applied,  and 
after  the  final  firing  the  ware  showed  a  greenish 
mottled  surface  with  dark  red  intaglio  decorations. 

A  number  of  small  potters  appear  to  have  been 

[278] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  POTTERS 

engaged  in  this  industry,  some  of  them  perhaps 
being  farmers  who  employed  their  winter  months  in 
this  way.  One  of  the  earliest  on  record  was  an 
Englishman,  Joseph  Smith,  who  made  pottery  at 
Wrightstown,  Bucks  County,  Pennsylvania,  as  early 
as  1763. 

George  Hiibener,  in  Montgomery  County,  was  the 
creator  of  some  of  the  most  elaborate  designs  made 
prior  to  1 786.  Toward  the  end  of  the  century  some 
of  the  best  of  the  ware  was  made  by  John  Leedy, 
near  Souderton,  Montgomery  County.  His  tulip 
designs  were  particularly  good. 

One  of  the  Germans  who  appears  to  have  attained 
considerable  prominence  in  this  trade  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century  was  Johannes  Neesz.  He  oper- 
ated a  pottery  near  Tyler's  Port,  Montgomery 
County,  about  four  miles  from  Souderton.  He 
manufactured  plates,  mugs,  vegetable  dishes,  etc.,  in 
both  slip  and  sgraffito  ware,  and  also  clay  toys. 
One  or  two  pieces  of  his  finer  work  at  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Museum  show  him  to  have  been  a  craftsman 
of  no  small  ability,  and  his  decoration  was  always 
more  finished  and  in  better  drawing  than  that  of 
most  of  his  contemporaries.  His  son,  also  a  potter, 
changed  the  spelling  of  the  name  to  John  Nase. 

David  Spinner,  a  potter  from  before  1800  until 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

1811,  on  Willow  Creek,  Milford  Township,  Bucks 
County,  enjoyed  considerable  local  fame.  His 
father,  Ulrich  Spinner,  came  to  America  from  Zu- 
rich, Switzerland,  in  1739.  A  number  of  Spinner's 
signed  pieces  are  in  existence  and  they  include  some 
of  the  most  interesting  examples  of  Pennsylvania- 
German  pottery.  He  used  a  variety  of  flower 
motifs,  the  fuchsia  being  a  favorite  with  him.  His 
pictorial  treatments  were  more  ambitious  than  those 
of  most  of  his  contemporaries  and  were  better  drawn. 
They  included  gay  and  courtly  ladies  and  gentlemen, 
gallant  soldiers,  and  spirited  hunting  scenes. 

Dr.  Barber  gives,  all  told,  the  names  of  twenty- 
two  of  these  potters,  the  majority  of  which  are  Ger- 
man names. 

There  is  still  a  possibility  of  picking  up  this  ware 
in  Eastern  Pennsylvania,  and  a  few  pieces  have 
already  found  their  way  to  the  shops  of  dealers. 
They  are  worth  anywhere  from  $1  up,  and  the 
values  are  bound  to  increase  with  the  demand.  A 
neighbor  of  mine  recently  paid  $25  for  an  unsigned 
slip-decorated  plate  bearing  a  peacock  and  the  date 
-11^88.  •,  ;  ?  :  it  | 

'"  During '  me  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
cups  and  saucers,  plates,  platters,  pitchers,  bean  pots, 
and  jugs  of  coarse  earthenware  were  being  produced 

[280] 


Two  Pennsylvania  German  sgraffito  plates  made  by  David  Spinner  in  1801.     Metropolitan 

Museum  Collection. 


Pennsylvania  German  red  clay  slip-decorated  ware,  dated  1788,  and  bearing  the  peacock 
motif  that  was  the  favorite  of  Georg  Hiibener.  It  is  a  meat  or  vegetable  dish,  14 
inches  in  diameter,  and  a  rare  specimen.  Owned  by  Mr.  Renwick  C.  Hurry. 


10 


EARLY  AMERICAN  POTTERS 

in  increasing  quantities.  In  1751  Edward  Annely 
of  Whitestone,  Long  Island,  advertised  flower  pots, 
garden  urns,  etc.  At  about  the  same  time  a  pottery 
was  started  at  Huntington,  Long  Island,  by  a  man 
named  Scudder  for  the  manufacture  of  earthenware 
and  salt-glazed  stoneware.  In  1775  the  Hunting- 
ton  works  passed  into  the  hands  of  one  Williams, 
and  were  continued  under  various  proprietors  until 
1903.  From  the  middle  of  the  century  until  1823 
an  earthenware  pottery  was  operated  by  Thomas, 
John,  and  Paxson  Vickers,  successively,  at  West 
Whiteland,  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania.  From 
1791  to  1811  John  Curtis  made  a  good  quality  of 
pottery  in  Philadelphia. 

In  New  England,  particularly  in  Connecticut, 
there  were  several  thriving  earthenware  potteries. 
As  early  as  1 760  a  pottery  and  glass  works  had  been 
established  by  Joseph  C.  Palmer  and  Richard 
Cranch  at  Germantown,  now  a  suburb  of  Quincy, 
Massachusetts.  About  1765  Abraham  Hews  started 
at  Weston,  Massachusetts,  a  pottery  for  the  manu- 
facture of  earthenware  milk  pans,  bean  pots,  jugs, 
pudding  dishes,  etc.  He  appears  to  have  been  a 
man  of  some  prominence  in  his  community,  serving 
as  postmaster  for  fifty-one  years.  Later  the  pottery 
became  famous  for  terra  cotta  jardinieres,  garden 

[283] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

vases,  etc.  Abraham  Hews  died  at  the  age  of 
eighty-eight,  when  his  son  moved  the  works  to 
North  Cambridge,  where  the  business  has  been  con- 
ducted continuously  ever  since  by  the  grandson  and 
great-grandson. 

In  1796,  C.  Potts  &  Son  perpetrated  an  uninten- 
tional pun  by  starting  an  eartheriware  pottery  on 
Bean  Hill,  Norwich,  Connecticut.  In  1775  a  potter 
named  Upton  went  from  Nantucket  to  East  Green- 
wich, Rhode  Island,  and  made  plates,  cups,  saucers, 
and  bowls  of  red  clay.  In  1793  there  was  a  flour- 
ishing pottery  at  Quasset,  Windham  County,  Con- 
necticut, conducted  by  Thomas  Bugbee.  He  made 
bean  pots,  jugs,  jars,  milk  pans,  and  ink-stands 
which  he  peddled  about  the  country.  A  little  later 
Adam  States  of  Stonington,  Connecticut,  made  red 
earthenware  and  also  gray  jugs,  jars,  and  pots  with 
a  salt  glaze.  A  factory  at  Norwalk  made  mugs, 
teapots,  jars,  and  milk  pans  of  red  ware  with  a  lead 
glaze,  and  also  stoneware  as  early  as  1780,  and  in 
1790  John  Stouter  started  an  earthenware  enter- 
prise in  Hartford.  In  1793  John  and  William 
Norton  went  from  Connecticut  to  Bennington,  Ver- 
mont, and  started  the  red  earthenware  works  that 
later  developed  into  the  famous  Bennington  pot- 
teries. 

[284] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  POTTERS 

At  Morgantown,  West  Virginia,  slip-decorated 
ware  and  lead-glazed  pottery  were  made  prior  to 
1785  by  a  man  named  Foulke,  who  was  succeeded 
about  1800  by  his  foreman,  John  W.  Thompson. 
Some  of  Thompson's  ware  was  interesting  in  form 
and  beautifully  colored. 

The  first  attempt  to  manufacture  fine  china  in  the 
Colonies  was  in  1769,  when  a  pottery  was  erected 
for  the  purpose  in  Philadelphia  by  Gousse  Bonnin 
and  George  Anthony  Morris.  They  made  bone 
china  and  cream-colored  ware,  both  plain  and  deco- 
rated in  blue.  It  is  not  likely  that  they  attempted 
to  make  real  porcelain.  The  works  were  run  for 
two  years  and  were  then  closed. 

In  the  same  year,  1 769,  efforts  were  made  to  start 
and  maintain  a  china  factory  in  Boston.  Appar- 
ently this  proved  abortive,  but  the  attempt  attracted 
the  attention  of  English  potters  who  began  coming 
to  America. 

In  1774  and  1775  Jonathan  Durell  of  New  York 
advertised  "butter,  water,  pickle  and  oyster  pots, 
porringers,  milk  pans  of  several  sizes,  jugs  of  several 
sizes,  quart  and  pint  mugs,  quart,  pint,  and  half  pint 
bowls,  of  various  colours,  small  cups  of  different 
shapes,  striped  and  coloured  dishes  of  divers  colours, 
pudding  pans  and  wash  basins,  sauce  pans,  and  a 

[285] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

variety  of  other  sorts  of  ware,  too  tedious  to  particu- 
larize, by  the  manufacturer,  late  from  Philadel- 
phia." 

With  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
there  were  many  other  potters  in  the  field  and  it  will 
be  necessary  to  mention  only  the  more  important  en- 
terprises. Philadelphia  became  the  center  of  the 
industry.  Here  Andrew  Miller,  who  had  conducted 
a  pottery  on  Sugar  Alley  since  1791,  was  succeeded 
in  1810  by  Abraham  Miller,  one  of  the  most  progres- 
sive potters  of  his  day.  At  his  factory  at  Seventh 
and  Zane  Streets  he  undertook  the  manufacture  of 
glazed  wares,  soft-paste  porcelain,  white  ware,  Rock- 
ingham,  and  silver  luster.  He  was  a  prominent 
citizen,  being  a  leading  member  of  the  Franklin  In- 
stitute and  representing  his  district  in  the  State 
Senate. 

In  1808,  Binney  &  Ronaldson  made  red  and  yel- 
low coffee  and  tea  sets  in  South  Street.  From  1808 
to  1813  the  Columbian  Pottery,  Alexander  Trotter 
proprietor,  manufactured  tea  and  coffee  pots,  pitch- 
ers, basins,  ewers,  and  baking  dishes,  also  jugs  and 
goblets  of  queensware.  From  1808  the  Washing- 
ton Pottery,  John  Mullawney  proprietor,  made 
bricks  and  earthenware.  David  Freytag  was  mak- 
ing fine  decorated  china  in  1811  and  George  Benor- 

[286] 


Two  sgraffito  plates  with  the  popular  tulip  motif,  dated  1810  and  1818.     Metropolitan 

Museum  Collection. 


Porcelain  vases,  Sevres  style,  probably  made  at  the    American   China  Manufactory  in 
Philadelphia  about  1833 — the  first  American  porcelain.     Hurry  Collection. 


EARLY  AMERICAN  POTTERS 

ton  in  1817,  and  from  1817  to  1822  David  G. 
Seixas  made  white  crockery.  In  1812,  Thomas 
Haig,  who  came  from  Scotland,  where  he  had 
learned  his  trade  as  a  queensware  potter,  started  the 
Northern  Liberties  Pottery  and  turned  out  an  excel- 
lent quality  of  glazed  red  and  black  earthenware — 
teapots,  coffee  pots,  pitchers,  strainers,  cake  molds, 
and  pans. 

During  the  first  quarter  of  the  century  successful 
potteries  were  established  also  in  New  York,  A1-. 
bany,  Troy,  Utica,  Baltimore,  Lancaster,  Pittsburg, 
Allentown,    Elizabeth,    New    Jersey,    Middlebury, 
Vermont,  and  Jaffrey,  New  Hampshire. 

The  term  antique  can  hardly  be  applied  to  pot- 
tery and  china  made  after  1825,  yet  there  are  cer- 
tain wares  and  factories  of  later  period  that  are  of 
interest  to  the  collector  and  to  the  student  of  the 
history  of  American  ceramics. 

In  1825  the  Jersey  Porcelain  and  Earthenware 
Company  was  incorporated  and  erected  a  factory  in 
Jersey  City.  For  two  or  three  years  soft-paste 
porcelain  was  made  here.  The  works  were  pur- 
chased by  D.  &  J.  Henderson  about  1829,  and  stone- 
ware was  manufactured.  In  1833,  David  Hender- 
son organized  the  American  Pottery  Manufacturing 
Company,  which  turned  out  a  variety  of  wares,  hav- 

[289] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

ing  chiefly  a  buff  body  of  excellent  quality,  and 
including  the  first  transfer-printed  china  made  in 
this  country.  Some  of  the  pitchers  made  by  this 
company  are  especially  sought  by  collectors,  particu- 
larly toby  pitchers,  1840  campaign  pitchers,  and  the 
Greatbach  hound-handled  pitcher  which  was  later 
improved  upon  at  Bennington.  A  large  portion  of 
the  product  of  this  factory  was  marked  with  its 
name.  After  1850  the  establishment  became  known 
as  the  Jersey  City  Pottery. 

Most  important  of  all  the  developments  of  the 
second  quarter  of  the  century  was  the  work  of  Wil- 
liam Ellis  Tucker  and  his  American  China  Manufac- 
tory in  Philadelphia.  To  him  is  due  the  credit  of 
making  the  first  American  hard  porcelain  on  a  suc- 
cessful commercial  scale.  He  was  the  son  of  Benja- 
min Tucker  who  kept  a  china  shop  on  Market  Street 
from  1816  to  1822.  In  the  rear  of  this  shop  a  small 
kiln  was  built  for  the  use  of  the  son  in  decorating 
the  imported  china.  He  began  experimenting  with 
various  materials  in  this  kiln,  and  about  1825  he 
undertook  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  as  a  business 
venture.  In  spite  of  failures  and  discouragements 
he  persisted  until  he  was  turning  out  a  very  fair 
grade  of  porcelain. 

After  the  death  of  William  Tucker  in  1832,  the 
[290] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  POTTERS 

business  was  continued  by  his  brother,  Thomas 
Tucker,  in  partnership  with  Judge  Joseph  Hemp- 
hill.  They  imported  foreign  artists  and  began  to 
devote  a  good  deal  of  attention  to  form  and  decora- 
tion. They  turned  out  a  great  variety  of  orna- 
mental and  utility  ware  which  enjoyed  a  consider- 
able vogue  among  the  well-to-do  people  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  New  Jersey.  Some  of  the  vases,  pitchers, 
and  table  pieces  were  close  copies  of  Sevres  forms, 
and  as  many  of  them  are  unmarked  they  are  often 
mistaken  for  French  porcelain.  The  business  did 
not  prove  a  complete  success  financially  and  was  dis- 
continued about  1838.  A  similar  ware  was  made  in 
Philadelphia  about  1830  by  Smith,  Fife  &  Co. 

The  pottery  at  Troy,  Indiana,  is  interesting  chiefly 
because  it  was  started  by  James  Clews,  the  eminent 
potter  of  Cobridge,  England,  who  made  some  of  the 
American  views  familiar  to  collectors  of  old  blue 
Staffordshire  ware.  He  came  to  this  country  after 
closing  his  English  works  in  1829  and,  with  a  num- 
ber of  capitalists,  incorporated  the  Indiana  Pottery 
Company  in  1837.  Though  started  under  the  best 
of  auspices,  this  factory  was  never  conspicuously  suc- 
cessful. Blue,  yellow,  and  Rockingham  wares  were 
made  here,  but  nothing  of  superior  excellence.  Mr. 
Clews  returned  to  England,  where  he  died  in  1856, 

[293] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

and  the  business  led  a  desultory  existence  for  a  few 
years  longer.  Mr.  Clews  was  a  skilled  and  enter- 
prising potter  and  deserved  better  success  here.  He 
was  the  father  of  Henry  Clews,  the  New  York 
banker. 

Charles  Cartridge  was  another  potter  of  unusual 
ability  who  came  from  England,  where  he  had 
worked  for  William  Ridgway.  With  a  Mr.  Fergu- 
son he  organized  the  firm  of  Charles  Cartlidge  &  Co. 
and  started  a  pottery  at  Greenpoint,  Long  Island,  in 
1848.  They  first  made  porcelain  buttons,  and  later 
a  fine  quality  of  decorated  table  china,  bone  porce- 
lain tea  sets,  pitchers,  bowls,  ornaments,  door  plates, 
door  knobs,  curtain  knobs,  etc.,  besides  some  very 
excellent  jewelry  cameos  and  portrait  busts  in  biscuit 
porcelain. 

Cartlidge  was  a  man  of  artistic  instincts  and  em- 
ployed the  best  talent  he  could  find.  His  chief  de- 
signer and  modeler  was  his  brother-in-law,  Josiah 
Jones,  who  executed  some  beautiful  portrait  busts 
and  ornamental  ware.  Other  skilled  decorators 
employed  by  him  were  Elijah  Tattler  and  Frank 
Lockett. 

The  factory  was  closed  in  1856  and  Mr.  Cartlidge 
died  in  1860.  He  was  prominent  in  his  community, 
a  leading  churchman,  and  an  authority  on  church 

[294] 


i-n  p   O 

£  3  1= 
3  O-13 


its 


-  W 


8S. 

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h 


EARLY  AMERICAN  POTTERS 

music.  I  know  of  no  special  attempt  having  been 
made  to  collect  Cartlidge  china,  but  it  would  cer- 
tainly repay  the  effort. 

Pottery  enterprises  were  also  started  previous  to 
1850  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  New  Brunswick, 
New  Jersey;  South  Amboy,  New  Jersey;  Louisville, 
Kentucky;  Strasburg,  Virginia;  at  East  Liverpool, 
Ohio,  where  American  Rockingham  ware  was  first 
made  by  James  Bennett  in  1839;  anc^  at  Benning- 
ton,  Vermont,  where  Christopher  Fenton  started  his 
famous  pottery  in  1846  and  began  the  production  of 
the  first  American  parian  ware. 


[297] 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE"    POTTERS    OF    BENNINGTON 

TO  class  Bennington  pottery  with  Revere  silver 
or  Stiegel  glass,  or  with  the  sgraffito  and  slip- 
decorated  ware  of  the  early  Pennsylvania 
potters,  would  be  to  commit  an  anachronism,  for  the 
best  of  the  Bennington  ware  was  made  but  three- 
score years  ago.  In  the  matter  of  genuine  artistic 
merit,  too,  it  suffers  by  comparison  with  some  of 
the  other  crafts.  The  fact  remains,  however,  that 
its  unique  quaintness  and  comparative  rarity  have 
won  for  it,  in  the  interest  of  collectors  of  Americana, 
a  place  beside  the  products  of  earlier  craftsmen. 

As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  making  of  pottery 
and  porcelain  as  an  industrial  art  was  not  one  of  the 
first  to  be  developed  in  this  country.  Much  of  the 
earlier  product  was  plain,  crude,  and  lacking  in  the 
elements  of  variety  and  charm  that  appeal  to  the 
collector.  Comparatively  speaking,  Bennington 
ware  is  antique. 

The  products  of  which  we  are  speaking  were  made 

[298] 


THE  POTTERS  OF  BENNINGTON 

chiefly  between  1847  and  1857,  though  the  old  pot- 
tery dates  back  half  a  century  earlier.  It  was  in 
1793  that  Capt.  John  Norton  and  his  brother  Wil- 
liam moved  from  Sharon,  Connecticut,  where  they 
had  no  doubt  been  engaged  in  making  the  coarse  red 
earthenware  famous  in  that  section,  and  settled  in 
Bennington,  Vermont.  Here  they  started  an  earth- 
enware kiln,  and  in  1800  added  the  manufacture  of 
stoneware. 

This  pottery  was  conducted  almost  continuously 
by  John  Norton,  who  died  in  1828,  his  son  Luman, 
and  his  grandson  Julius,  until  about  1846,  when 
Julius  Norton  formed  a  new  firm  with  Christopher 
Weber  Fenton  and  Henry  D.  Hall.  In  the  north 
wing  of  the  old  factory  they  began  the  manufacture 
of  white  and  yellow  crockery  and  Rockingham  ware, 
the  last  being  a  yellow  ware  covered  with  a  dark 
brown  glaze,  often  mottled  by  spattering  the  glaze 
before  firing.  Most  of  the  modeling  was  done  by 
John  Harrison,  a  potter  who  learned  his  trade  in 
England.  The  mark  on  this  ware  was  "Norton  & 
Fenton,"  impressed.  It  is  very  rare  but  is  occasion- 
ally to  be  found. 

Though  this  pottery  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Norton  family  exactly  one  hundred  years,  it  was 
Fenton  who  was  the  soul  of  the  enterprise,  the 

[299] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

craftsman  of  Bennington.  He  came  to  Bennington 
about  1840  and  was  taught  the  finer  elements  of  the 
potter's  trade  by  Luman  Norton.  It  was  to  Fen- 
ton's  skill,  energy,  and  imagination,  together  with 
the  discovery  of  fine  kaolin  clay  and  useful  minerals 
in  Vermont,  that  we  are  indebted  for  what  we  know 
as  Bennington  ware. 

About  1848  the  partnership  was  dissolved  and 
Fenton  formed  the  firm  of  Lyman  &  Fenton  with 
Alanson  Lyman,  a  Bennington  lawyer.  A  little  later 
we  find  the  firm  name  changed  to  Lyman,  Fenton  & 
Park.  The  new  firm  made  white  and  yellow  crock- 
ery, salt-glaze  stoneware,  Rockingham,  and  a  thin, 
white  porcelain  called  parian  ware — the  first  to  be 
manufactured  in  the  United  States.  On  a  few 
pieces  of  parian  the  mark  "Fen ton's  Works,  Ben- 
nington, Vermont"  appears  in  a  rectangular  border, 
which  may  indicate  that  Fenton  was  in  business 
alone  for  a  short  time  before  the  partnership  was 
formed. 

In  1849  the  firm  was  reorganized  as  the  United 
States  Pottery  and  a  new  factory  was  erected  across 
the  river.  The  old  Norton  plant  was  operated  inter- 
mittently, making  the  plainer  wares,  until  it  was 
sold  out  in  1893,  having  been  once  burned  and  re- 
built in  the  '5o's. 

[300] 


Four  of  the  types  of  Bennington  pitchers  from  the  collection  of  Mr.  William  A. 
Cahill,  Hoosick  Falls,  N.  Y.  From  left  to  right  they  are  the  branch-handled 
pitcher,  a  plain  pattern  in  scroddled  ware,  the  tulip  pattern,  and  Greatbach's 
Bennington  hound-handle. 


Hound-handled  pitchers  from  the  Jersey  City  or  Trenton  potteries,  probably  de- 
signed by  Greatbach.  Note  the  differences  in  the  modelling  of  the  head  and  fore- 
legs of  the  Bennington  hound  above. 


THE  POTTERS  OF  BENNINGTON 

The  United  States  Pottery  at  once  undertook  the 
production  of  the  finer  ornamental  wares — Rocking- 
ham,  parian,  white  granite  ware,  and  a  little  soft- 
paste  porcelain.  In  1849  Fen  ton  took  out  a  patent 
for  the  coloring  of  glazes  and  for  a  flint-enameled 
ware.  This  was  an  improvement  on  the  Rocking- 
ham  and  a  product  of  great  strength  and  variety  of 
coloring.  It  included  plain,  mottled,  and  scroddled 
or  striped  ware,  composed  of  different  colored  clays. 

The  mark  adopted  about  1853  for  the  parian  ware 
and  porcelains  consisted  of  a  raised  ribbon  loop  bear- 
ing the  unpressed  letters  U  S  P  and  the  number  of 
the  pattern.  That  on  the  new  ware  was  composed 
of  the  following  legend,  impressed,  in  a  large  oval, 
often  nearly  obliterated  by  the  glaze:  "Lyman, 
Fen  ton  &  Co.  Fen  ton's  Enamel.  Patented  1849. 
Bennington,  Vt."  Some  later  products  of  the  con- 
cern bear  a  smaller  oval  mark  and  the  words  "United 
States  Pottery  Co.  Bennington,  Vt." 

The  pottery's  principal  artists  were  Theophile  Fry, 
who  came  from  France  or  Belgium,  and  Daniel 
Greatbach,  an  Englishman.  The  latter,  because  he 
was  responsible  for  some  of  the  most  popular  de- 
signs, and  because  we  are  interested  in  craftsmen,  de- 
serves fuller  mention. 

Daniel  Greatbach  came  from  a  family  of  noted 
[303] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

English  potters  and  is  said  to  have  been  at  one  time 
a  modeler  for  the  Ridgways  in  England.  He  came 
from  Hanley,  England,  about  1839,  and  modeled 
some  of  the  best  wares  produced  at  the  famous  pot- 
teries at  Jersey  City  between  1839  and  1848.  After 
that  he  was  employed  at  various  times  in  Peoria, 
Illinois,  in  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  and  in  Bennington. 
In  1852  he  established  a  pottery  at  South  Amboy, 
New  Jersey,  in  partnership  with  James  Carr,  but 
the  enterprise  failed.  He  was  an  artist,  not  a  busi- 
ness man,  and  he  died  in  poverty  in  Trenton.  He 
was  a  remarkable  character  and  endowed  with  great 
talent.  He  is  described  as  a  large,  handsome  man, 
always  well  dressed,  and  extremely  courteous. 

Greatbach  was  the  originator  of  many  of  the 
models  most  popular  between  1840  and  1860  in  this 
country.  Some  of  those  which  he  conceived  in  Jer- 
sey City  he  altered  more  or  less  and  reproduced  in 
Bennington.  Notable  among  these  was  the  hound- 
handled  pitcher,  which  was  made  at  Jersey  City,  at 
Bennington,  and  later,  in  inferior  quality,  at  Tren- 
ton. This  has  given  rise  to  some  confusion  among 
collectors.  But  the  Bennington  product  was  much 
the  finest,  and  can  be  distinguished  by  the  better 
modeling  and  by  the  space  between  the  hound's  nose 

[304] 


THE  POTTERS  OF  BENNINGTON 

and  the  edge  of  the  pitcher.  It  is  a  shapely  piece,  a 
greyhound  forming  the  handle  and  the  body  deco- 
rated with  a  hunting  scene  in  relief.  The  Ben- 
nington  model  was  produced  soon  after  Greatbach 
arrived,  in  1850,  and  was  made  in  three  sizes  and  in 
brown,  blue,  and  green  glazes — chiefly  brown. 

In  two  or  three  years  the  new  concern  found  itself 
in  a  flourishing  condition  with  over  a  hundred  hands 
employed.  In  1853  the  works  were  enlarged  so 
that  the  factory  was  160  feet  long,  and  six  improved 
kilns  were  erected.  The  machinery  was  run  by 
water  power. 

There  were  few  china  stores  in  those  days  and  pot- 
tery goods  had  to  be  distributed  largely  by  peddlers 
in  both  city  and  country.  The  company's  selling 
headquarters  were  in  Boston. 

For  some  reason  the  pottery's  prosperity  was  com- 
paratively short-lived,  and  by  1857  much  of  the 
manufacturing  was  discontinued.  The  plant  was 
closed  in  1858  and  most  of  the  potters  moved  away 
to  Trenton,  Ohio,  and  Illinois.  In  1863  it  was  re- 
opened long  enough  to  make  use  of  the  materials 
stored  there  and  then  the  books  were  closed  for  good. 
The  buildings  were  torn  down  in  1870,  and  in  1873 
most  of  the  patterns  were  destroyed  by  fire. 

[305] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

In  1858  Fenton  moved  to  Peoria,  Illinois,  and  in 
1859  started  a  new  pottery  with  Decius  W.  Clark, 
his  former  superintendent  in  Bennington.  They 
commenced  the  manufacture  of  white  granite  and 
cream-colored  wares,  but  the  venture  did  not  prove  a 
success  and  was  abandoned  after  about  three  years. 

Fenton  was  born  in  Dorset,  Vermont,  in  1806  and 
learned  the  rudiments  of  his  trade  in  a  common  red- 
clay  pottery  at  that  place.  For  a  decade  he  was  one 
of  the  foremost  potters  in  the  United  States.  He 
died  in  Joliet,  Illinois,  November  7,  1865.  His  for- 
mer partner,  Alanson  Lyman,  died  in  1883,  at  the 
age  of  seventy-seven. 

Collectors  of  Bennington  ware  have  been,  to  a 
large  extent,  somewhat  lacking  in  discrimination, 
valuing  a  brown  pudding  dish  almost  as  highly  as  a 
finely  modeled  blue-and-white  parian  pitcher.  The 
Rockingham  and  flint-enamel  figures  possess  the 
quaintness  that  is  the  first  attraction  of  Bennington 
ware,  but  the  finer  porcelains  display  more  of  those 
qualities  of  design  and  texture  that  ordinarily  ap- 
peal to  the  connoisseur.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to 
keep  in  mind  the  various  kinds  of  china  and  pottery 
made  at  Bennington,  and  perhaps  this  can  best  be 
fixed  by  means  of  a  recapitulation : 

[306] 


The  recumbent  cow  and  two  kinds  of  tobies.     Owned  by  Mr.  William  A.  Cahill. 


Pudding  dish,   coffee    pot,    and   candlesticks   in   the    collection    of   Bennington 
pottery  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum. 


Poodles  and  coachman  bottle  from  Mr.  Cahill's  collection.      The  white  poodle 
is  rare  and  valuable. 


THE  POTTERS  OF  BENNINGTON 

1846-1848.  Norton  &  Fen  ton.  White  and  yel- 
low wares  and  Rockingham. 

1848-1849.  Fenton's  Works,  Lyman  &  Fen  ton, 
and  Lyman,  Fenton  &  Park.  Salt- 
glaze  stoneware  and  parian  added. 

1849-1858.  United  States  Pottery.  The  above, 
and  also  white  granite,  variegated 
and  scroddled  wares,  the  patent 
flint-enameled  ware,  and  a  small 
amount  of  soft-paste  porcelain. 

While  in  many  respects  the  Bennington  figures 
owe  much  of  their  quaintness  to  a  certain  naive 
crudity  of  design,  they  were  far  more  carefully  mod- 
eled than  most  of  the  products  of  other  factories  of 
the  period  and  the  glaze  was  more  uniform,  brilliant, 
and  evenly  applied,  with  a  rich,  velvety  sheen. 
Moreover,  it  requires  a  certain  sort  of  genius  to  de- 
sign such  fierce  lions,  such  motherly  cows,  such  jolly 
tobies. 

The  range  of  coloring  in  the  Rockingham  and 
flint-enamel  wares  included  olive,  green,  brown,  yel- 
low, and  various  mixtures.  In  the  variegated 
pieces  the  mottling  and  scroddling  was  done  with  an 
evident  effort  at  uniformity  and  evenness.  Brown 

[309] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

was  the  commonest  color  used,  varying  from  a 
creamy  tint  to  almost  black.  Some  of  the  finest 
pieces  are  a  deep,  darkly  shaded  brown,  slightly  mot- 
tled, or  in  tortoise-shell  effects,  and  bearing  a  hard, 
metallic  luster.  A  mustard  color  is  common,  but  the 
majority  are  a  rich  chocolate  color. 

The  parian  ware  was  oftenest  a  grayish  white 
like  marble,  occasionally  cream,  fawn-colored,  or  a 
delicate  brown.  On  some  pieces  the  decoration  con- 
sisted of  sharply  raised  figures  in  pure  white  on  a  pit- 
ted blue  ground  of  different  shades. 

A  descriptive  list  of  all  the  models  turned  out  by 
the  United  States  Pottery  would  constitute  a  formid- 
able catalogue.  Table  ware,  toilet  sets,  mantel  or- 
naments, toys,  plain  crockery  of  all  sorts  up  to  a  half- 
bushel  bowl,  door  plates,  foot  warmers,  door  knobs, 
curtain  knobs,  and  a  host  of  other  articles  would  have 
to  be  included.  For  the  present  purpose  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  mention  a  few  of  the  pieces  most  interest- 
ing to  collectors. 

In  the  Rockingham  ware,  pitchers,  mantel  orna- 
ments, and  flasks  are  most  sought  after.  The  orna- 
ments include  lions,  dogs,  deer,  cows,  particularly 
the  recumbent  cow,  and  toby  jugs.  A  flask  in  the 
form  of  a  book,  bearing  the  title  "Departed  Spirits," 
is  to  be  found  in  almost  every  collection.  Rocking- 

[310] 


THE  POTTERS  OF  BENNINGTON 

ham  candlesticks  and  even  picture  frames  are  occa- 
sionally to  be  found. 

The  flint-enameled  ware,  usually  plain  brown  or 
mottled,  included  ale  jugs,  jolly  Dutchman  and 
monk  bottles,  small  figures,  shovel-and-tongs  rests, 
door  plates,  goblets  and  tumblers,  goblet-shaped 
vases,  milk  and  sap  pans,  pitchers,  cuspidores,  toby 
jugs  and  tobacco  jars,  bean  pots,  cracker  jars,  picture 
frames,  candlesticks,  book-shaped  hot-water  bottles, 
teapots,  curtain  knobs,  toy  banks  in  the  form  of 
grotesque  heads,  match  safes,  and  a  host  of  other 
forms. 

Popular  among  the  figures  were  a  lion  with  fore- 
paw  resting  on  a  ball,  a  girl  on  horseback,  and  a 
poodle  carrying  a  basket  in  his  mouth.  There  were 
two  slightly  different  forms  of  the  jolly  Dutchman 
or  coachman  bottle,  about  eleven  inches  high.  The 
figure  is  of  a  man  wrapped  in  a  cloak,  clutching  a 
small  mug,  and  wearing  a  high  hat  which  forms  the 
neck  of  the  bottle.  Another  popular  piece  was  a 
small  creamer  in  the  form  of  a  smiling  cow,  which 
was  also  used  as  a  mantel  ornament.  A  lid  on  her 
back  could  be  opened  to  admit  the  cream,  which 
was  poured  out  through  her  mouth. 

The  pitchers  alone  offer  a  wide  field  for  the  col- 
lector. They  were  of  all  sizes,  from  small  cream- 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

ers  to  large  cider  jugs.  There  were  various  plain, 
fluted,  octagonal,  and  decorated  forms,  the  most 
famous  and  the  most  valuable  to-day  being  Great- 
bach's  hound-handled  pitcher.  The  branch-handled 
and  tulip  designs  are  also  in  demand. 

The  parian  ware  was  more  costly  and  was  mod- 
eled with  greater  care.  The  vases  and  pitchers  were 
particularly  graceful  in  outline,  more  or  less  ornate, 
and  light  in  weight.  Some  of  the  forms  deserve 
a  high  rating  as  examples  of  the  ceramic  art.  In 
this  porcelain  bisque  were  also  made  match  holders, 
mustard  cujps,  various  dishes,  cane  handles,  and  man- 
tel ornaments,  including  the  figures  of  birds,  swans, 
sheep,  and  children.  The  Bennington  poodle,  a  sit- 
ting spaniel,  and  a  cow  were  also  made  in  parian, 
but  are  very  rare,  as  are  also  the  white  toby  and 
hound-handled  pitcher.  A  famous  piece  was  the 
large  Niagara  Falls  pitcher,  the  pattern  representing 
a  cataract  flowing  over  the  sides  to  rocks  beneath. 

Table  and  toilet  services  were  extensively  manu- 
factured in  white  and  marbled  bodies,  sometimes 
with  a  gold  band.  Utility  wares  were  also  made  to 
a  limited  extent  in  green  and  cobalt  blue  glazed 
ware. 

Toilet  sets,  pitchers,  and  ornaments  were  made  in 
white  granite  ware  and  porcelain  decorated  with  gold 


The  Bennington  deer,  one  of  the  most  popular  figures.     From  the  collection  of  Elihu 
B.  Taft,  Esq.,  Burlington,  Vt. 


The  Bennington  cow  creamer.     Owned  by   Miss  Mary  H.  Northend,  Salem,  Mass. 


THE  POTTERS  OF  BENNINGTON 

and  colored  designs,  the  pitchers  sometimes  bearing 
the  names  or  initials  of  the  owners.  Among  the 
white  granite  ornaments  were  the  swan,  the  cow 
creamer,  and  the  figure  of  a  little  girl  praying. 

Bennington  ware  was  originally  moderate  in  price 
and  considerable  quantities  of  it  were  sold.  Some 
of  the  finer  parian  pieces  cost  several  dollars,  but  the 
small  flint-enameled  ornaments  were  peddled  from 
door  to  door  at  fifteen  to  twenty-five  cents  apiece. 
There  came  a  period,  naturally  enough,  when  Ben- 
nington ornaments  began  to  look  old-fashioned,  and 
hundreds  of  them  were  doubtless  thrown  away. 
That  fact  and  the  natural  tendency  of  pottery  to  get 
broken  account  for  the  comparative  scarcity  and  high 
value  of  the  ware  to-day. 

A  collection  of  Bennington  ware  was  shown  at  the 
Pan-American  Exposition  in  1901,  and  since  then 
it  has  steadily  gained  in  popularity  among  collectors. 
It  is  now  nearly  as  rare  and  as  valuable  as  Lowestof t. 

An  idea  of  the  high -prices  that  have  occasionally 
been  paid  for  coveted  pieces  may  be  gathered  from 
the  fact  that  at  an  auction  sale  in  Boston  in  March, 
1914,  a  pair  of  flint-enameled  Bennington  poodles 
brought  $340.  Of  course,  that  was  exceptional,  but 
the  demand  for  Bennington  ware  has  been  extraor- 
dinary and  the  average  dealer  expects  to  get  pretty 

[315] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

high  prices  for  authentic  pieces.  A  great  deal  de- 
pends on  the  color,  and,  as  a  rule,  dishes  and  utility 
wares  are  of  less  value  than  the  figures.  I  have  found 
the  following  prices  quoted  by  dealers :  $50  to  $  100 
for  a  good  lion;  $25  to  $50  for  the  dogs,  cows,  and 
deer;  $75  to  $150  for  the  white  dogs;  $25  to  $50  for 
swans;  hound-handled  pitcher,  $35  to  $50;  tulip 
pitcher,  $30;  other  pitchers,  $25  to  $35;  tobies,  book 
bottles,  monk  and  coachman  bottles,  etc.,  $15  to 
$25;  candlesticks,  $10  or  $15  a  pair;  cow  creamer, 
$10;  small  novelties,  $5  to  $8.  The  finer  parian 
ware  and  the  rarer  pieces  in  green  or  blue  glazes 
bring  even  higher  prices. 

On  the  other  hand  most  collectors  have  found  it 
possible  to  pick  up  their  specimens  for  much  less, 
though  the  picking  is  by  no  means  as  easy  as  it  was 
five  years  ago.  One  such  collector  gave  $l  and  $2 
respectively  for  two  tobies ;  $5  for  a  coachman  bot- 
tle; $5  for  a  book  bottle;  the  same  for  a  friar  or 
monk  bottle;  $8  for  a  wash  bowl  and  pitcher. 

The  collector  will  do  well  not  to  be  carried  away 
by  the  high  quotations  of  dealers,  for  the  values  are 
apt  to  be  inflated,  and  while  such  prices  are  fre- 
quently obtained,  they  are  really  no  fair  indication 
of  the  real  value  of  Bennington. 

To  strike  a  fair  average,  cows,  deer,  and  dogs  in 


Examples  of  blue  and  white  parian  ware  made  at  Bennington.      From    the   collection 
of  Mr.  Charles  S.  Sherman,  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y. 


White  parian  owned  by  Mr.  Andrew    B.  Oatman,  Bennington,  Vt.     The    pitcher  is 
the  daisy  pattern;  the  white  swan  is  very  rare. 


THE  POTTERS  OF  BENNINGTON 

good  condition  should  be  worth  about  $10;  book 
bottles,  $10;  plain  pitchers,  dishes,  etc.,  $5  to  $7; 
coachman  bottles,  $12  to  $15;  hound-handled  pitch- 
ers, $20;  small  novelties,  $3  to  $5;  the  finer  parian, 
$25  to  $50.  Such  pieces  as  the  white  dogs  and  the 
recumbent  cow  are  becoming  very  rare  and  are  likely 
to  bring  higher  prices. 

Already  faking  has  been  indulged  in  to  some  ex- 
tent, the  cow  creamer  having  been  reproduced  and 
Jersey  City  hound-handled  pitchers  having  been 
worked  off  as  Bennington,  but  the  collector  is  in  little 
danger  who  takes  the  trouble  to  become  familiar  with 
the  modeling,  coloring,  and  general  appearance  of 
the  true  Bennington. 


[319] 


CHAPTER  XIII 

AMERICAN   FURNITURE   MAKERS 

THUS  far  I  have  made  no  attempt  to  cover 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  fruitful  of 
all  the  industrial  arts — furniture  making. 
The  chapters  on  Windsor  chairs  and  Duncan  Phyfe 
deal  with  but  two  of  the  many  interesting  subjects 
to  be  discovered  in  this  field.  Nor  shall  I,  in  the 
present  chapter,  attempt  anything  like  detailed  de- 
scription or  analysis,  for  the  simple  reason  that  an 
entire  volume  would  be  required  to  do  the  subject 
anything  like  justice.  Nevertheless,  a  discussion  of 
early  American  craftsmanship  would  be  so  glaringly 
incomplete  without  some  attention  being  paid  to  the 
cabinet-makers,  that  I  have  decided  upon  a  brief  out- 
line of  the  history  of  furniture  making  in  America, 
with  apologies  for  its  necessarily  superficial  charac- 


Seventeenth-century  turned  chair   (Harvard   chair)    and  oak  wainscot  chair. 


At  the  left,  American  Queen  Anne  fiddle-back  chair,  Dutch  type,  with  Spanish  feet, 
about  1710-20;  right,  a  somewhat  later  style,  with  cabriole  legs  and  ball-ana- 
claw  feet.  Bolles  Collection. 


AMERICAN  FURNITURE  MAKERS 

ter.  My  purpose  is  not  so  much  to  impart  definite 
information  as  to  indicate  certain  directions  that 
further  investigation  well  may  take.  Generally 
speaking,  we  know  more  about  English  than  Ameri- 
can furniture,  and  there  are  fascinating  quarters  of 
this  field  still  practically  untouched. 

As  to  the  craftsmen  themselves,  their  name  is 
legion,  and  it  is  difficult  to  single  out  the  most  im- 
portant or  most  interesting.  In  Colonial  days  every 
small  town  had  its  joiners  and  chairmakers,  while 
in  the  cities  the  trade  was  a  well  established  and 
generally  profitable  one.  Judging  by  the  examples 
of  their  work  extant,  many  of  them  must  have  been 
skilled  craftsmen.  Unfortunately,  but  few  of  their 
names  have  been  preserved,  and  most  of  those  are 
merely  names.  We  have  no  means  of  knowing  who 
did  some  of  the  finest  work. 

Among  the  early  colonists  in  New  England  there 
were  a  number  of  joiners,  turners,  cabinet-makers, 
and  carvers,  some  of  whom  had  undoubtedly  learned 
their  trades  under  the  best  English  and  Dutch  mas- 
ters and  who  were  capable  of  reproducing  the  styles 
of  the  day  in  native  woods.  Many  of  them  settled 
in  and  about  Boston  and  worked  at  their  trade  dur- 
ing the  last  three  quarters  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. In  1642  there  were  twenty  joiners  and  over 

[323] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

thirty  turners  in  Boston.  In  1690  the  Handicrafts 
Guild  of  that  city  had  registered  more  than  sixty  fur- 
niture makers  and  over  forty  upholsterers.  Miss 
Singleton  gives  the  names  of  about  forty  members 
of  the  craft  who  were  at  work  in  Boston  between 
1635  and  1700.  She  gives  the  names  also  of  furni- 
ture makers  in  Salem,  Charlestown,  and  Newbury, 
Massachusetts,  and  eight  in  Maine.  The  earliest 
name  on  record  appears  to  be  that  of  Phineas  Pratt, 
who  was  at  work  in  Weymouth,  Massachusetts,  as 
early  as  1622,  while  Kinelm  Wynslow  was  promi- 
nent in  Plymouth  Colony  prior  to  1634. 

In  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  the  Carolinas,  practi- 
cally all  the  furniture  was  imported  during  the 
seventeenth  century.  New  York  and  Philadelphia 
had  their  local  joiners  but  seem  to  have  preferred 
the  imported  furniture.  Most  of  the  American- 
made  furniture  of  the  seventeenth  century,  therefore, 
was  of  New  England  origin. 

While  the  Colonial  joiners,  like  their  fellow  crafts- 
men abroad,  employed  oak  and  walnut  for  their 
finest  work,  they  were  also  willing  to  make  use  of 
such  native  woods  as  came  easily  to  hand — ash,  elm, 
maple,  pine,  and  cedar — frequently  painting  the 
softer  woods.  Their  work  was  chiefly  to  order,  or 
"bespoke." 

[324] 


AMERICAN  FURNITURE  MAKERS 

In  these  materials  they  produced  the  current  Eng- 
lish styles  of  the  period  as  well  as  local  adaptations 
and  variations  of  those  styles.  The  chairs  they 
made  were  chiefly  of  four  types — a  few  carved  or 
paneled  wainscot  chairs,  solid  turned  chairs,  leather 
and  "Turkey- work"  chairs  of  the  Cromwellian  type, 
and  the  earlier  forms  of  the  slat-back  chair.  Such 
cane-and-walnut  chairs  of  the  Restoration  period  as 
are  to  be  found  in  this  country  were  imported. 
Solid,  high-backed  settles,  gate-leg  tables,  desks  and 
Bible-boxes,  chests,  cupboards,  etc.,  were  all  made  in 
this  country  in  the  contemporary  styles. 

By  1700  we  find  the  industry  well  established  in 
various  parts  of  the  country.  Boston  continued  to 
be  the  principal  center,  with  Philadelphia  a  close  sec- 
ond toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Miss 
Singleton  gives  the  names  of  a  score  of  cabinet-mak- 
ers, joiners,  and  chairmakers  at  work  in  Boston  be- 
tween 1707  and  1773.  The  Boston  Directory  of 
1789  records  the  names  of  thirty-three  engaged  in 
various  branches  of  the  business,  and  that  of  1796 
some  forty-five  firms  and  individuals.  Miss  Single- 
ton also  found  over  fifty  joiners,  cabinet-makers,  and 
chairmakers  at  work  between  1703  and  1780  in 
Lynn,  Ipswich,  Marblehead,  Salem,  Newbury,  Bev- 
erly, Gloucester,  and  neighboring  towns.  After  the 

•  [325] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Revolution  Samuel  Phippen  of  Salem,  who  died  in 
1798,  was  a  well  known  manufacturer. 

During  this  period  the  finest  furniture  was  either 
imported  from  England  or  made  especially  to  order 
for  the  homes  of  the  well-to-do,  but  the  Massachu- 
setts manufacturers  turned  out  a  large  quantity  of 
stock  patterns  which  were  not  only  used  locally  but 
were  shipped  South. 

Newport  homes  contained  some  fine  furniture,  but 
for  the  most  part  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  used 
furniture  of  local  manufacture,  made  chiefly  of 
cherry,  cedar,  whitewood,  and  black  walnut,  slat- 
back  chairs  being  the  commonest  type  until  the 
Windsors  came  into  vogue.  Very  little  mahogany 
was  used  by  the  Connecticut  makers. 

In  New  York  furniture  makers  became  more 
numerous  after  the  middle  of  the  century.  For  the 
more  fashionable  trade  they  used  black  walnut,  wild 
cherry,  curled  maple,  sweet  gum,  white  cedar,  and 
mahogany.  New  York  imported  considerable  cedar 
from  Bermuda  and  the  Barbadoes  and  mahogany 
from  the  West  Indies. 

Among  the  New  York  furniture  makers  Miss  Sin- 
gleton found  the  following:  John  Tremain,  1751; 
Robert  Wallace,  Beaver  and  New  Streets,  1753; 
Solomon  Hays,  Beaver  and  Broad  Streets,  1754; 

[326] 


At  tiie  left,  Charles  II  or  Restoration  style,  with  Flemish  feet,  1675-1700;  center, 
the  second  stage,  bannister-back  with  Spanish  feet  and  Restoration  features; 
right,  third  stage,  with  spindles  rounded  on  the  back.  Metropolitan  Museum. 


At  the  left,  bannister-back  armchair  with  spindles  rounded  on  the  back,  Metropoli- 
tan Museum;  right,  bannister-back  armchair  with  flat,  grooved  spindles,  about 
1740-50,  owned  by  the  author. 


AMERICAN  FURNITURE  MAKERS 

Henry  Hardcastle,  Burling  Slip,  1755;  J°nn  Brin- 
ner,  Broadway,  1762;  Gilbert  Ash,  Wall  Street, 
1759.  The  New  York  Directory  of  1786  gives  the 
names  of  only  half  a  dozen,  but  that  of  1 789  records 
nineteen  cabinet-makers  and  nineteen  chairmakers. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  century  Philadelphia 
had  several  upholsterers  and  importing  houses,  but 
few  cabinet-makers.  After  1750,  however,  several 
furniture  makers  advertised  in  Philadelphia  papers. 
In  1785  Philadelphia  had  over  fifty  furniture-mak- 
ing concerns  beside  about  eighteen  chairmakers. 

In  1796  Baltimore  had  twenty-six  cabinet-makers 
and  several  chairmakers,  and  thirty-seven  in  1810. 
Charleston  in  1803  had  thirty-six. 

The  popular  styles  underwent  several  changes 
during  the  eighteenth  century.  From  1700  to  1725 
the  American  furniture  makers  used  chiefly  a  com- 
bination of  William  and  Mary  and  Dutch  styles. 
From  1725  to  1750  American-made  furniture  was 
chiefly  along  Dutch  lines,  with  local  adaptations  and 
variations. 

Between  1750  and.  1775  the  furniture  made  here 
compared  favorably  with  that  brought  from  Eng- 
land. Mahogany  became  more  common  and  our 
furniture  makers  gained  a  more  secure  footing. 
Dutch  styles  gradually  gave  place  to  early  Georgian 

[329] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

and  finally  Chippendale.  Between  1760  and  1770 
a  number  of  American  cabinet-makers  reproduced 
the  designs  from  Chippendale's  books,  with  little  or 
no  variation.  In  Philadelphia  James  Gillingham 
and  in  New  York  James  Rivington  and  John  Brin- 
ner  produced  mahogany  furniture  of  high  quality  in 
the  Chippendale  style.  Chippendale's  influence  per- 
sisted longer  in  this  country  than  in  England,  and 
was  followed  by  Hepplewhite  and  Sheraton  styles 
late  in  the  century. 

JThe  ^American  chairs  of  the  eighteenth  century 
fall  roughly  into  five  groups:  those  which  followed 
fairly  closely  the  most  popular  styles  in  England, 
the  roundabouts,  the  upholstered  wing  chairs,  the 
rush-bottomed  slat-back  and  bannister-back  chairs, 
and  the  Windsors  which  have  already  been  described 
in  another  chapter. 

The  first  group  includes  the  Queen  Anne  and 
Dutch  types  with  high  backs,  vase-shaped,  solid 
splats,  and  cabriole  legs.  They  were  made  in  solid 
and  veneered  walnut  and  other  woods  and  were  fash- 
ionable from  1700  to  1750  and  even  after  that. 
About  1750  a  pierced  splat  and  the  ball-and-claw 
foot  began  to  appear,  to  be  followed  soon  by  the. 
Chippendale  designs.  Mahogany  became  more  com- 
mon, and  during  the  Revolutionary  period  we  find 

[330] 


AMERICAN  FURNITURE  MAKERS 

a  number  of  Hepplewhite  designs,  followed,  toward 
the  close  of  the  century,  by  Sheraton. 

From  1700  to  1750  the  roundabout  was  a  popular 
chair  in  America,  and  is  to  be  found  in  Queen  Anne, 
Dutch,  Georgian,  and  turned  styles,  with  many  local 
variations.  They  were  particularly  in  vogue  about 
1735-40.  Some  were  made  in  the  cheapest  woods 
with  rush  bottoms,  and  some  in  cherry,  black  walnut, 
and  mahogany,  with  seats  covered  with  leather  or 
cloth.  Mahogany  roundabouts  in  Chippendale  pat- 
terns became  popular  about  the  middle  of  the  cen- 
tury. 

More  definitely  American  were  the  various  types 
of  turned  and  rush-bottom  chairs,  which,  being  less 
expensive,  were  more  common  in  the  average  home. 
These  were  made  in  New  England,  New  York,  and 
Pennsylvania,  and  were  of  walnut,  oak,  hickory, 
cherry,  maple,  ash,  poplar,  apple,  pine,  and  various 
combinations  of  these  woods,  usually  painted. 
After  1700  the  later  forms  of  the  slat-backs  and  ban- 
nister-backs appeared.  These  will  be  discussed  more 
in  detail  later. 

The  most  interesting  American-made  tables  of  the 
period,  perhaps,  were  the  tripod  tilt-tables,  tea  tables, 
and  candle  stands,  made  first  of  walnut,  cherry,  and 
other  woods,  and  later  of  mahogany.  They  also 

[330 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

followed  the  prevailing  English  forms,  including  the 
pie-crust  top,  with  some  variations,  chiefly  along  the 
lines  of  simplicity  and  plainness.  Before  1775  the 
tops  were  mostly  round  or  scalloped ;  after  the  Revo- 
lution the  octagonal  form  appeared.  There  were 
also  plain,  heavy  tables  of  solid  mahogany,  and 
numerous  variations  of  the  Georgian  styles  in  card 
tables,  dining  tables,  etc. 

Beds  were  largely  of  American  make  because  of 
the  difficulty  of  importing  such  large  pieces.  The 
finest  ones  were  carved  four-posters  following  the 
Georgian  styles.  Tent  beds,  with  curved  rods  for 
the  canopy,  were  also  common.  There  were  also 
plain  four-posters  and  low-posters  and  many  which 
were  rather  poor  attempts  to  improve  on  the  English 
styles. 

Highboys,  chests  of  drawers,  lowboys,  and  dress- 
ing tables  of  various  woods  were  common  from  1725 
to  1750.  They  were  chiefly  of  local  design  with 
cabriole  legs  and  other  Dutch  characteristics.  From 
1750  to  1775  high  chests  of  drawers,  dressing  tables, 
and  desks,  with  elaborately  carved  scroll  and  broken- 
arch  pediments,  were  made  in  Philadelphia  and  New 
York.  In  New  England  the  block  front  was  origi- 
nated and  was  used  on  low  chests  of  drawers,  bu- 

[332]  . 


Early  slat-back  armchair  and  later  four-back  chair.      Metropolitan  Museum. 


At  the  left,  early  roundabout  with  solid  splats  and  Dutch  feet,  owned  by  the  author; 
right,  later  roundabout,  Chippendale  style,  in  the  Bolles  Collection. 


AMERICAN  FURNITURE  MAKERS 

reaus,  dressing  tables,  chests-on-chests  of  drawers, 
desks,  and  secretaries. 

Most  of  the  desks  and  secretaries  used  here  prior 
to  the  Revolution  were  probably  imported,  though 
a  few  old  walnut  ones  are  to  be  found  which  were 
undoubtedly  made  here,  as  well  as  later  ones  of  ma- 
hogany. After  the  Revolution  they  were  made  in 
increasing  numbers,  particularly  bookcase  desks  and 
secretaries.  They  range  from  the  very  simple  to  the 
very  elaborate — some  severely  square  and  plain,  and 
some  with  serpentine  and  block  fronts  and  carved 
pediments.  Mahogany  veneer  was  the  common 
material  used.  A  few  fine  examples  of  low-top 
desks  are  to  be  found,  with  tambour  fronts  and  deli- 
cate inlay,  indicating  Shearer  or  Sheraton  influence, 
and  dating  about  1790. 

The  last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century  found  a 
large  number  of  skilled  cabinet-makers  at  work. 
Of  these  Duncan  Phyfe  was  the  chief,  but  there 
were  many  others  in  various  cities  who  produced  fine 
furniture,  particularly  while  the  Sheraton  influence 
prevailed.  They  seem  to  have  caught  the  spirit  of 
his  delicate  art  to  a  remarkable  degree.  Until  1810 
this  influence  was  strong,  but  it  gradually  gave  way 
to  the  Empire  craze  which  modified  all  our  designing 

[335] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

and  resulted  in  the  so-called  American  Empire  style. 
By  1825  this  had  become  heavy  and  ornate  and  but 
little  superior  to  the  machine-made  furniture  that 
followed. 

The  most  interesting  chairs  of  the  early  nineteenth 
century  were  the  definitely  Sheraton  types,  the  Phyfe 
productions,  the  late  Windsors,  and  the  "fancy" 
chairs.  These  last  were  made  in  New  York  in  con- 
siderable quantities  between  1800  and  1830  and 
were  highly  favored  for  both  dining-room  and  cham- 
ber. They  were  light  chairs  of  soft  wood,  with  rush 
or  cane  seats,  straight,  turned  legs,  stiles  bending 
slightly  back,  with  or  without  arms,  and  with  two 
or  more  horizontal  slats  across  the  back,  sometimes 
ornamented  with  spindles  or  balls.  They  were  us- 
ually painted  black  and  decorated  with  gilt,  and  a 
yellow  or  gilt  design  of  fruit  or  flowers  was  painted 
on  the  broad  slat  at  the  top  of  the  back.  Sofas  were 
made  in  the  same  style. 

The  "fancy"  chair  was  introduced  in  New  York 
as  early  as  1797  by  one  William  Challen  who  came 
from  London.  In  1802  William  Palmer,  2  Nassau 
Street,  advertised  black  and  gold  "fancy"  chairs  with 
cane  and  rush  bottoms.  In  1806  William  Mott, 
Broadway,  advertised  similar  chairs,  also  green, 
white,  and  gilt  ones.  In  1812  Asa  Holden,  32 

[336] 


AMERICAN  FURNITURE  MAKERS 

Broad  Street,  advertised  ball  and  spindle  back 
"fancy"  chairs,  and  in  1817  Wharton  &  Davies  in- 
troduced a  line  of  "fancy"  chairs  both  painted  and 
of  curled  maple — side  chairs,  armchairs,  rocking- 
chairs,  settees,  and  sofas.  Unpainted  curled  maple 
chairs  in  this  style  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  New  York. 

Of  a  later  period,  but  still  of  interest  to  collectors, 
are  the  mahogany  veneered  chairs  of  the  American 
Empire  type  which  were  made  from  1830  to  1840. 
They  had  heavy,  curved  backs  and  vase-shaped 
splats  and  were  originally  copied  after  the  chair  in 
the  library  of  Napoleon  I  at  Malmaison  which  was 
given  by  Louis  Philippe  to  the  Marquis  de  Marigny 
at  New  Orleans. 

Early  nineteenth  century  tables  included  some 
delicate  Sheraton  types,  but  these  all  too  soon  gave 
place  to  heavy  affairs  with  round,  octagonal,  or  lyre- 
shaped  pedestals  and  four  scroll  feet.  Their  saving 
grace  was  the  occasional  beauty  of  the  veneer. 

The  American  sideboards  and  bureaus  of  the 
period  are  sought  to  some  extent,  though  the  later 
forms  show  the  same  Empire  heaviness.  The  side- 
boards often  have  three  drawers,  with  three  cup- 
boards below,  the  middle  one  being  wider  and  fitted 
with  two  doors.  Some  fine  sideboards  were  made  in 

[337] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

the  South,  with  serving  boards  and  cellarettes. 
After  1820  a  sideboard  was  introduced  with  four 
legs,  turned  feet,  and  turned  pillars  at  the  corners, 
and  with  one  cupboard  and  with  sometimes  a  butler's 
desk  in  place  of  the  middle  drawer.  Desks  and  sec- 
retaries followed  the  same  style  tendencies  as  the 
other  furniture. 

The  French  or  sleigh  bed  which  was  made  from 
1820  to  1840  is  not  without  interest.  It  had  low, 
rolling  head  and  foot  boards  and  broad  legs,  and 
was  usually  of  mahogany  veneer. 

In  addition  to  these  more  familiar  types,  there  are 
one  or  two  others  that  are  worthy  of  mention.  Dur- 
ing the  Washingtonian  enthusiasm  of  1789-90,  the 
American  eagle  became  a  popular  design  motif  for 
various  purposes.  Mr.  R.  T.  Haines  Halsey  of 
New  York  has  collected  several  pieces  of  what  he 
calls  Washington  eagle  furniture,  made  in  New 
York,  Baltimore,  and  Albany.  One  is  a  four-poster 
bedstead,  carved  with  eagles,  and  the  others  are 
pieces  of  the  Sheraton  type  with  the  eagles  appear- 
ing in  the  form,  of  finely  inlaid  medallions.  This 
may  suggest  an  interesting  if  somewhat  limited  field 
for  other  enterprising  collectors. 

Contemporary  with  the  slip-decorated  pottery  of 
western  Pennsylvania  was  a  type  of  painted  furni- 

[338]  ' 


American-made  chairs  of  the  Chippendale  type,  1760-70. 


At  the  left,  American  chair  of  the  Sheraton  type,  about  1800;    right,  "  fancy  "  chair, 
early  nineteenth  century.      Metropolitan  Museum. % 


AMERICAN  FURNITURE  MAKERS 

ture  made  by  these  same  Germans.  I  do  not  know 
that  any  persistent  search  has  been  made  for  it,  and 
the  only  pieces  I  have  seen  have  been  strong  dower 
chests,  painted  in  what  were  once  bright  colors  and 
bearing  the  bride's  name  or  initials  and  often  a  date. 
My  neighbor,  Mr.  Renwick  C.  Hurry,  has  one 
painted  in  panels,  with  the  popular  tulip  on  the  cen- 
tral one,  and  the  name  Anna  Maria  Muthhart,  1 786, 
above.  The  common  design  motifs  were  conven- 
tionalized flowers — particularly  the  tulip — fruits, 
birds,  etc.,  and  were  painted  in  greens,  reds,  blues, 
and  yellows. 

The  collector,  it  will  be  seen,  has  a  wide  field  to 
choose  from  in  the  work  of  American  furniture  mak- 
ers. The  Dutch  and  Georgian  types  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  the  later  Sheraton  and  Phyfe  furni- 
ture, the  Windsor  chairs,  and  the  slat-backs  and  ban- 
nister-backs are  all  worthy  of  attention.  The  last- 
named  group  I  have  reserved  for  further  considera- 
tion because  I  believe  it  offers  an  opportunity  for 
American  collectors  that  has  not  been  fully  improved, 
though  I  have  not  thought  it  advisable  to  devote  a 
separate  chapter  to  this  subject. 

The  earliest  chairs  made  in  New  England  had 
rush  seats  and  turned  legs,  arms,  stretchers,  and 
stiles.  The  stiles,  legs,  and  arm-posts  were  large  and 

[341] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

straight  and  the  entire  chair  solid  and  not  without 
a  certain  grace  of  proportion.  The  uprights  were 
usually  of  ash,  arms  and  underbraces  of  hickory,  and 
the  lighter  turned  work  of  ash,  hickory,  or  birch. 
These  turned  chairs  were  made  from  1625  to  1700 
with  some  variations  in  design.  Some  had  vertical 
rods  in  the  back.  One  type  has  been  called  the 
Carver  chair  because  similar  to  Governor  Carver's 
chair  in  Pilgrim  Hall,  Plymouth. 

These  turned  chairs  were  the  predecessors  of  the 
slat-backs  and  bannister-backs,  which  were  also  the 
artistic  descendents  of  the  old  English  turned  chairs 
and  the  high-backed  walnut-and-cane  chairs  of 
Charles  IPs  time. 

The  slat-back  type,  which  had  its  counterpart  in 
England,  is  older  than  the  bannister-back.  The  first 
ones,  in  fact,  appeared  as  early  as  1650  and  were 
contemporary  with  the  Carver  chairs. 

The  slat-backs  had  turned  stiles,  legs,  and  under- 
braces, and  high,  straight  backs  with  from  two  to 
six  slightly  curved  horizontal  slats.  They  were 
made  of  native  hard  woods,  such  as  maple,  hickory, 
ash,  beech,  etc.,  with  two  or  three  kinds  often  used 
in  a  single  chair.  They  were  well  built  and  were 
strong  and  useful. 

They  were  made  with  both  rush  and  mat  seats,  the 

[342] 


AMERICAN  FURNITURE  MAKERS 

last  being  made  of  the  inner  bark  of  the  bass  wood 
or  linden  tree  and  sometimes  of  the  elm.  They  were 
called  flag-bottomed,  mat-bottomed,  reed-bottomed, 
and  bulrush  chairs,  and  also,  in  some  old  inventories, 
"basse-bottom"  chairs. 

In  New  England  slat-backs  were  usually  called 
"three-back  chairs,"  "four-back  chairs,"  etc.,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  slats.  They  were  made  with 
and  without  arms,  the  armchairs  being  called  "great 
chairs."  The  first  rocking-chairs  made  in  America 
were  slat-backs  and  appeared  between  1725  and 
1750. 

Mr.  Lockwood  has  traced  an  interesting  style  de- 
velopment in  the  slat-backs.  The  first  ones  had 
three  slats  which  were  straight  across  top  and  bot- 
tom, but  cut  down  in  quarter  circles  at  the  ends. 
Gradually  the  slats  grew  lighter,  and  between  1675 
and  1700  were  usually  curved  on  the  top  side  and 
straight  or  nearly  straight  across  the  bottom.  After 
1 700  these  chairs  became  very  common  in  New  Eng- 
land, with  three  to  five  slats,  usually  curved  on  the 
upper  edge,  or  straight  across  both  edges. 

Pennsylvania  slat-backs  show  some  variations  in 
style.  There  the  turning  was  generally  plain  and 
straight,  while  in  New  England  vase  and  bulb  forms 
were  commonest.  The  front  legs  usually  ended  in  a 

[343] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

ball  and  the  rear  legs  in  a  taper  foot.  Five  and  six 
slats  were  common,  with  the  lower  edges  curved  up 
sharply,  following  the  curves  of  the  upper  edges. 

A  very  common  type  of  modern  piazza  chair  is 
based  directly  on  the  old  slat-back  form. 

The  first  bannister-backs  appeared  in  both  Eng- 
land and  America  about  1700  and  were  called  also 
split-back  chairs.  They  were  very  evidently  a  de- 
velopment of  the  high-backed  walnut  chairs  of  the 
Restoration,  for  they  showed  the  Spanish  feet,  carved 
top  of  back,  and  occasionally  the  carved  underbrace, 
and  the  general  proportions  were  the  same.  But 
they  had  rush  seats  instead  of  cane  or  upholstery, 
and  in  place  of  the  cane  or  upholstered  panel  in  the 
back  there  were  three  to  five — usually  four — upright 
spindles  or  balusters  between  turned  stiles.  These 
balusters  were  turned  and  split,  the  flat  side  being 
occasionally  toward  the  back  but  more  often  toward 
the  front. 

In  this  country  the  bannister-backs  were  made  of 
two  or  three  kinds  of  wood  in  a  single  chair  and  were 
usually  painted.  They  were  made  with  and  without 
arms. 

These  were  the  true  bannister-backs,  but  the  name 
has  also  been  applied  to  the  later  forms.  After  1725 
they  were  much  simplified  in  America,  the  carved 

[344] 


' 


The  oak  gate-leg  table,  of  Jacobean  origin, 
was  popular  in  England  and  the  Colonies 
during  the  last  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  This  one,  a  fine  example  of 
American  workmanship,  is  in  the  Bolles 
Collection. 


An  unusual  form  of  tripod  table 
with  inlaid  top;  1780-1800. 
Bolles  Collection. 


A  not  ungraceful  table  of  the  Dutch 
type,  American  manufacture;  1750- 
75.  Bolles  Collection. 


American  mahogany  table  with  reeded 
legs,  Sheraton  style;  about  1800. 
Owned  by  Mrs.  W.  A.  Dyer. 


AMERICAN  FURNITURE  MAKERS 

tops  and  Spanish  feet  disappearing  and  giving  place 
to  plain  curved  or  horizontal  pieces  at  the  top  of  the 
back,  and  straight,  turned  legs  and  underbraces. 
After  1735  or  thereabouts  the  turned  and  split  balus- 
ters became  less  common  and  in  their  place  appeared 
plain  or  grooved  uprights,  flat  on  both  sides.  This 
form  was  common  up  to  1750  and  persisted  to  some 
extent  till  about  1775,  being  gradually  superseded 
by  the  more  comfortable  Windsors. 


[347] 


CHAPTER  XIV 

OTHER  CRAFTS  AND  CRAFTSMEN 

BEFORE  closing  this  volume  it  may  not  be  un- 
interesting to  take  a  passing  glance  at  some 
of  the  minor  crafts  and  'craftsmen  that  form 
a  part  of  the  early  history  of  industrial  arts  in  Amer- 
ica. 

EARLY  CLOCKMAKERS 

Two  chapters  have  already  been  devoted  to  clock- 
making,  but  the  Willards  and  the  Connecticut  group 
were  not  the  only  clockmakers  worthy  of  considera- 
tion, though  they  were  the  most  important. 

Clockmakers  came  here  from  England  and  Hol- 
land early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  little  is 
known  of  them  or  of  their  work.  The  names  of 
most  of  the  clockmakers  of  the  first  half  of  the 

[348] 


OTHER  CRAFTS  AND  CRAFTSMEN 

eighteenth  century  are  also  missing.  Clockmakers 
did  not  commonly  sign  their  work  until  later;  the 
practice  of  pasting  a  paper  of  directions  inside  the 
case  did  not  become  general  until  about  1800. 
Many  an  interesting  old  clock  is  owned  to-day  about 
which  practically  nothing  is  known  as  to  history  or 
maker. 

One  of  the  earliest  names  on  record  is  that  of 
William  Davis,  who  was  making  clocks  in  Boston 
in  1683.  James  Batterson  was  at  work  and  adver- 
tised there  between  1707  and  1730  and  Thomas 
Bodeley  in  1720.  The  clocks  of  these  early  makers 
are  very  rare,  and  offer  but  little  opportunity  for  the 
collector. 

The  most  prominent  name  found  among  the  Bos- 
ton clockmakers  of  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century  is  Bagnall.  Benjamin  Bagnall  made  tall, 
eight-day  clocks  in  Charlestown,  in  pine  and  walnut 
cases,  as  early  as  1712.  He  was  succeeded  in  1740 
by  his  sons  Samuel  and  Benjamin,  Jr.,  who  did  busi- 
ness in  Boston.  The  latter  had  a  shop  on  Cornhill, 
near  the  Town  House,  in  1770. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  the  century  there  were 
many  successful  clockmakers  in  Boston,  including 
Joseph  and  Robert  Pope,  D.  F.  Lanny,  Richard 
Cranch,  and  others. 

[349] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Early  clockmaking  was  also  carried  on  in  Ply- 
mouth and  in  other  towns  of  eastern  Massachusetts. 
Newbury  was  something  of  a  center  for  the  industry. 
Here  Balch  and  Mulliken  were  prominent  names. 
Samuel  Mulliken  was  born  in  Bradford,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1720  and  moved  to  Newbury  in  1750, 
where  he  made  clocks  for  about  six  years.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Jonathan  and  by  his  grandson 
Samuel,  who  made  clocks  in  Newburyport  until 
about  1790.  There  was  also  a  Joseph  Mulliken 
who  died  in  Newburyport  in  1804,  a  Nathaniel  Mul- 
liken who  lived  in  Lexington  from  1751  to  1789, 
and  another  Samuel  Mulliken  who  advertised  clocks 
in  Salem  in  1789. 

Daniel  Balch  was  born  in  Bradford  in  1734  and 
moved  to  Newbury  in  1757,  where  he  made  clocks 
for  thirty  years.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  sons 
Daniel  and  Thomas.  Thomas  kept  up  the  business 
till  1818,  making  excellent  clocks,  and  was  then  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Charles.  There  were  also  Ben- 
jamin and  James  Balch  in  Salem  in  1787.  Another 
well  known  Newburyport  clockmaker  was  David 
Wood  (1766-1824). 

At  a  somewhat  later  date  the  name  of  Munroe  be- 
came famous  in  Concord,  Massachusetts.  Here 
Daniel  and  Nathaniel  Munroe,  brothers,  made  clocks 

[350] 


11 


1 


OTHER  CRAFTS  AND  CRAFTSMEN 

from  about  1800.  In  1808  Daniel  moved  to  Boston 
and  Nathaniel  continued  the  business  with  Samuel 
Whiting  until  1817,  when  he  moved  to  Baltimore. 
They  did  a  large  business  in  eight-day  clocks  with 
brass  works.  Nathaniel  also  had  a  brass  foundry 
where  he  made  bells,  clock  works,  etc. 

I  have  already  made  reference  to  Lemuel  Curtis, 
and  to  Elnathan  Taber  and  Simon  Willard's  other 
apprentices.  (See  Chapter  VI.) 

In  Rhode  Island  the  Claggetts  were  famous  clock* 
makers  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  a  few  examples  of  their  work  are  still  to  be  seen. 
Between  1726  and  1740  H.  Claggett  was  making 
tall  clocks  of  superior  quality  in  Newport.  Thomas 
and  William  Claggett,  presumably  his  sons,  were  en- 
gaged in  the  business  between  1730  and  1750. 

In  1788  Seril  Dodge,  who  was  a  gold-  and  silver- 
smith as  well  as  a  clockmaker,  was  at  work  in  Provi- 
dence. From  1794  to  1824  Nehemiah  Dodge  was 
engaged  in  these  two  trades,  being  succeeded  by  Ezra 
W.  Dodge,  probably  his  son.  Other  Providence 
clockmakers  were  Caleb  and  Calvin  Wheaton,  about 
1784  to  1790. 

The  Connecticut  clockmakers,  beginning  with 
Thomas  Harland  in  1 773,  have  already  been  consid- 
ered. (See  Chapter  V.) 

[353] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

In  Philadelphia  one  of  the  earliest  known  clock- 
makers  was  Christopher  Sower.  He  was  born  in 
Germany  in  1693,  came  to  Philadelphia  in  1724, 
and  engaged  in  the  clock-making  trade  in  German- 
town  in  1731,  when  we  find  his  name  spelled  Souers. 
He  made  tall  eight-day  clocks  of  good  quality.  Be- 
sides being  a  clockmaker,  he  was  a  physician,  chem- 
ist, farmer,  paper  maker,  book  printer,  and  author. 
He  also  invented  a  cast-iron  stove. 

Another  early  member  of  the  craft  in  Philadelphia 
was  Odran  Dupuy,  who  was  making  clocks  in  1735. 
John  Dupuy,  who  was  in  the  business  in  1770,  was 
probably  his  son.  Augustine  Neiser  was  a  Moravian 
who  settled  in  German  town  in  1739  and  made  clocks 
until  1780.  Most  of  these  were  signed  with  his 
name,  but  without  date.  Edward  Duffield,  a  friend 
of  Benjamin  Franklin,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in 
1720  and  made  clocks  and  watches  there  between 
1741  and  1747.  William  Godfrey  was  another 
Philadelphia  clockmaker  between  1750  and  1763. 

The  genius  among  the  Philadelphia  clockmakers 
was  David  Rittenhouse,  who  was  born  in  German- 
town  in  1732,  established  his  trade  in  Norriton  in 
1751,  and  moved  to  Philadelphia  in  1770,  where  he 
made  clocks  until  about  1777.  He  was  a  famous 
astronomer  and  constructed  a  remarkable  astronom- 

[354] 


OTHER  CRAFTS  AND  CRAFTSMEN 

ical  clock  which  is  now  in  Memorial  Hall,  Philadel- 
phia. He  was  treasurer  of  Pennsylvania  from  1777 
to  1789,  Professor  of  Astronomy  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  from  1779  to  1782,  and  Director 
of  the  United  States  Mint  from  1792  to  1795. 

After  the  Revolution  clockmakers  were  more  nu- 
merous in  Philadelphia.  The  directory  of  1785 
gives  the  names  of  nineteen  and  that  of  1795  twenty- 
five. 

In  New  York  imported  clocks  were  largely  adver- 
tised during  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
but  there  were  also  a  number  of  local  clockmakers. 
Among  the  earliest  on  record  was  Everardus  Bogar- 
dus,  who  was  at  work  as  early  as  1698.  John  Bell 
advertised  eight-day  clocks  in  Japan  cases  in  1734. 
Long-case  clocks  with  brass  works  were  advertised 
by  George  Nicholls  between  1728  and  1750  and  by 
Lawrence  Payne  between  1732  and  1755.  Thomas 
Perry  was  making  clocks  in  Dock  Street  and  Moses 
Clements  in  Broadway  in  1749.  Other  p  re-Re  volu- 
tionary  clockmakers  in  New  York  were  George  Ches- 
ter and  Carden  Proctor,  who  were  at  work  in  1757, 
John  Ent  and  Patrick  Carryl  in  1758,  and  Joseph 
Clark  in  1768.  After  the  Revolution  there  were 
many  more. 

In  other  cities  the  industry  also  thrived.     Robert 

[355] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

Shearman  made  clocks  in  Wilmington,  Delaware,  be- 
tween 1760  and  1770.  In  Baltimore,  where  the 
trade  flourished  after  the  Revolution,  Alexander 
Vuille  was  at  work  in  1766.  The  most  complete  list 
of  early  American  clockmakers  appears  in  Mrs. 
Moore's  "Old  Clock  Book." 

LOOKING-GLASSES    AND    FRAMES 

While  most  of  the  so-called  Colonial  looking- 
glasses  in  America  were  imported,  the  making  of  mir- 
ror frames  became  a  fairly  profitable  industry  after 
the  Revolution.  The  Queen  Anne  and  Georgian 
types  nearly  all  came  from  England. 

During  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  a 
looking-glass  became  popular  in  America  which  was 
a  revival  of  the  Queen  Anne  style.  It  had  a  flat 
frame  of  solid  or  veneered  mahogany,  deeply  curved 
at  the  bottom  and  with  the  broken  arch  or  some  sim- 
ilar form  at  the  top.  The  frame  was  embellished 
with  gilt  ornaments,  the  eagle  becoming  popular 
about  1775.  There  was  often  a  molding  around  the 
inside  of  the  frame,  and  the  glass,  unlike  its  Queen 
Anne  prototype,  was  squared. 

By  1775  looking-glasses  were  manufactured  in 
considerable  quantities  in  New  England,  though 
still,  apparently,  imported  in  New  York.  Between 

[356] 


American  glass  cup  plates,  1830  to  1850. 


Gen.  Taylor  flask,   Dyottville  works;     Masonic  flask  by  A.  R.   Samuels,   and  bottle 
by  S.  Huffsey;  about  1850.      Metropolitan  Museum  Collection. 


OTHER  CRAFTS  AND  CRAFTSMEN 

1780  and  1790  the  so-called  Constitution  mirror  was 
in  vogue.  It  was  similar  in  style  to  the  one  just 
described,  with  gilt  plaster  ornaments  mounted  on 
wires  at  the  sides  and  with  a  gilt  eagle  of  carved 
wood  or  plaster  in  the  broken  arch  at  the  top.  The 
gilt  plaster  eagle  in  bas  relief  occasionally  found  on 
the  flat  wood  above  the  glass  belongs  to  a  later 
period — about  1810. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  century  gilt-framed 
glasses  of  various  types  were  made  here.  One  of  the 
finest  of  these  was  the  circular  bull's-eye  mirror,  with 
convex  glass  and  with  an  ornate  gilt  frame  of  carved 
wood  or  molded  plaster  or  a  combination  of  the 
two.  It  was  ornamented  with  heavy  beading  or 
rows  of  balls  and  frequently  had  a  spread  eagle  at 
the  top.  These  bull's-eyes  varied  from  twelve  to 
thirty-six  inches  in  diameter,  the  smaller  ones  being 
frequently  used  in  pairs.  Some,  called  girandole 
mirrors,  were  furnished  with  two  or  more  candle 
holders.  They  were  made  between  1780  and  1800. 

Over-mantel  glasses  of  various  sorts  were  common 
after  1780.  They  were  made  chiefly  with  three 
sections  of  glass,  separated  by  molding,  the  two  end 
sections  being  narrower  than  the  middle  one.  After 
1800  heavier  pilasters  divided  the  sections.  Similar 
looking-glasses  were  made  in  upright  form  with  two 

[359] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

sections  of  glass,  the  smaller  section  at  the  top  often 
being  ornamented  with  a  pattern  cut  out  of  wood 
and  laid  over  it.  After  1800  this  upper  section  was 
more  commonly  painted  with  a  crude  landscape  or 
emblematic  design. 

After  1805  Empire  styles  began  to  come  into 
vogue.  Between  1810  and  1830  the  commonest 
form  of  looking-glass  had  a  heavy  gilt  frame,  often 
with  an  overhanging  cornice  at  the  top  ornamented 
with  pendant  balls  or  acorns,  the  rest  of  the  frame 
being  rounded,  spiral,  or  fluted.  After  1825  heavy 
balluster  forms  appeared  on  all  four  sides. 

Little  has  been  recorded  of  the  men  who  made 
these  looking-glasses.  James  Foddy  advertised  in 
New  York  in  1730  "to  alter  and  amend  old  looking- 
glasses."  George  Robinson,  a  Boston  carver,  who 
died  in  1737,  is  known  to  have  made  frames,  and 
William  Farris  was  a  carver  and  gilder  of  looking- 
glass  frames  in  Baltimore  in  1796.  Few  of  their 
names  are  known,  however,  and  it  is  probable  that 
most  of  them  were  among  those  listed  as  carvers  in 
the  old  directories. 

GLASS-MAKERS 

Baron  Stiegel,  though  the  most  interesting  of  the 
early  American  manufacturers  of  glassware,  was  not 

[360] 


OTHER  CRAFTS  AND  CRAFTSMEN 

the  first.  Window  glass  and  bottles  were  manufac- 
tured in  Jamestown,  Virginia,  as  early  as  1609,  and 
another  factory  started  there  in  1621  made  glass 
beads  for  barter  with  the  Indians.  Salem  had  a 
glass-house  in  1639,  where  coarse  bottles  were  made. 
Glassware  was  also  made  in  Philadelphia  by  Joshua 
Tittery  in  1683  and  perhaps  in  other  places,  though 
these  seventeenth  century  ventures  were  not  gen- 
erally successful. 

In  1739  glass  works  were  established  at  Alloways- 
town,  later  Wistarburg,  Salem  County,  New  Jersey, 
by  Caspar  Wistar,  and  were  continued  by  his  son 
Richard  until  1781.  Here  window  glass  and  bottles 
of  good  quality  were  made,  as  well  as  a  few  beautiful 
specimens  of  higher  grade  glassware  showing  Dutch 
characteristics. 

There  were  two  factories  in  New  York  as  early  as 
1731,  one  in  Connecticut  in  1741,  and  one  in  Brook- 
lyn in  1754.  Crude  bottles  were  made  at  Quincy, 
Massachusetts,  in  1760.  Bottles  and  flasks  were 
made  in  Kensington,  Pennsylvania,  about  1771,  and 
in  1775  Stanger  Bros,  started  a  factory  at  Glassboro, 
New  Jersey.  Robert  Hewes  of  Boston  started  a 
glass-house  at  Temple,  New  Hampshire,  in  1779, 
but  it  was  not  a  success. 

After  the  Revolution  other  glass  factories  were 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

started  in  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg,  Baltimore,  New 
York,  Albany,  New  Jersey,  and  New  England.  In 
1 783  William  and  Elisha  Pitkin  and  Samuel  Bishop 
were  given  the  sole  privilege  of  making  glass  in  Con- 
necticut. The  Pitkin  factory  was  located  at  East 
Hartford. 

The  first  American  glass  was  greenish,  coarse,  and 
full  of  bubbles  and  sand.  After  the  Revolution  the 
quality  of  the  material  was  improved  as  well  as  the 
designs.  Salt  cellars,  bowls,  pitchers,  bottles,  and 
all  sorts  of  drinking  glasses  were  made  in  pressed  and 
cut  glass,  up  to  about  1810.  These  were  followed 
by  blown  glass  up  to  about  1827,  when  the  modern 
industry  was  established. 

American  drinking  glasses  form  an  interesting  field 
for  the  collector,  and  there  are  various  sorts  of  orna- 
mental and  table  ware  and  lamps.  In  some  respects, 
however,  the  bottles  form  the  most  alluring  field. 

The  need  for  bottles  and  flasks  was  felt  as  early 
as  the  seventeenth  century,  but  the  first  ones  made 
here  were  coarse  and  crude  and  in  the  simplest  forms. 
Later,  blue  and  brown  glass  appeared  in  place  of  the 
light  and  dark  green,  and  more  attention  was  paid  to 
the  matter  of  shape. 

After  the  Revolution  bottles  began  to  be  made 
with  some  form  of  decoration.  As  early  as  1790 

[362] 


•I 


Eighteenth-century  iron  vessels  from  the  Bolles  Collection. 


Old  Pennsylvania  stove  plates,  owned  by  Mr.  David  B.  Missemer. 


OTHER  CRAFTS  AND  CRAFTSMEN 

bottles  bearing  the  heads  and  busts  of  noted  men 
were  made  in  Baltimore.  After  1800  curious  shapes 
began  to  appear — men,  animals,  fishes,  shells,  books, 
violins,  and  pistols.  About  1810  bottles  were  made 
in  the  form  of  crude  busts  of  Washington  and  La- 
fayette. 

The  vogue  for  fancy  bottles  and  pocket  flasks, 
bearing  blown  decorations  of  political  or  historical 
significance,  lasted  from  1808,  when  they  began  to 
appear  in  Philadelphia,  till  about  1870.  They  were 
made  in  various  colors,  which  do  not  serve  as  an  indi- 
cation of  their  date  of  manufacture.  The  designs 
were  cut  in  metal  molds.  Of  the  eighty  or  more 
patterns  that  have  been  found,  twenty-nine  show  the 
American  eagle,  nineteen  are  of  Washington,  and 
nineteen  of  General  Zachary  Taylor. 

The  popularity  of  these  bottles  was  in  full  swing 
by  1825,  when  several  factories  made  flasks  and  bot- 
tles to  commemorate  the  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal. 
These  included  busts  of  Lafayette  and  Governor 
Clinton. 

The  presidential  campaign  of  1840  was  made  the 
occasion  for  the  manufacture  of  a  large  number  of 
bottles  in  the  form  of  campaign  emblems,  such  as  the 
log  cabin,  the  beehive,  and  the  cider  barrel.  The 
idea  caught  the  popular  fancy  and  souvenir  bottles 

[365] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

were  much  in  demand  during  the  next  fifteen  years. 
The  Mexican  War  furnished  another  subject  and  in 
1848  General  Taylor  and  Captain  Bragg  bottles 
were  popular.  In  1850  flasks  with  globular  bodies 
and  long  necks  were  dedicated  to  Jenny  Lind  and 
Louis  Kossuth  and  bore  their  names  and  likenesses. 
Other  popular  subjects  were  Henry  Clay,  Robert 
Fulton,  and  Thomas  Jefferson. 

Not  a  great  deal  is  known  of  the  makers  of  these 
bottles.  Campaign  bottles  'of  1840  and  Mexican 
War  bottles  were  made  at  the  Kensington  works, 
which  were  started  by  Robert  Towars  and  James 
Leacock  in  1771,  and  were  taken  over  by  Thomas 
Leiper  in  1783  and  by  James  Rowland  &  Co.  in 
1813.  The  factory  at  Glassboro,  New  Jersey,  which 
was  started  by  Stanger  Bros,  in  1775,  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Whitney  Bros,  in  1840.  They  made 
whiskey  bottles  and  also  ink-stands  in  the  log  cabin, 
cider  barrel,  and  beehive  forms,  and,  in  1 750,  Jenny 
Lind  bottles.  Samuel  Huffsey  of  Philadelphia  also 
made  Kossuth  and  Lind  bottles,  often  using  the  mark 
S.  Huffsey. 

These  bottles  make  an  interesting  if  not  an  espe- 
cially beautiful  or  antique  collection.  The  largest 
number  were  made  between  1848  and  1852,  and 
practically  none  now  in  existence  were  made  before 

[366] 


One  form  of  the  old  Franklin  stove.     Owned  by  the  author. 


American  iron  vessels,  eighteenth  century.      Metropolitan  Museum. 


OTHER  CRAFTS  AND  CRAFTSMEN 

1825.  They  are  worth  from  $1  to  $10  apiece,  ac- 
cording to  age  and  rarity  of  design. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  cup-plates — the  little  glass 
dishes  that  grandfather  used  to  set  his  cup  on  while 
cooling  his  tea  in  his  saucer.  These  were  also  espe- 
cially popular  between  1840  and  1850,  and  bore  the 
campaign  emblems,  state  coat-of-arms,  and  such  his- 
torical scenes  as  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  These 
cup  plates  are  worth  from  25  cents  to  $5  apiece,  $1 
being  a  fair  average  value. 

The  opal  glass  which  was  in  vogue  about  1820  is 
also  interesting.  It  is  found  in  lamps,  candlesticks, 
door  knobs,  curtain  and  drawer  knobs,  and  various 
small  articles. 

IRON    FURNACES 

The  history  of  iron  casting  in  America  I  shall  not 
attempt  to  treat  as  fully  as  so  important  an  industry 
deserves,  for  the  reason  that  it  cannot  have  so  great 
an  interest  for  collectors  as  some  of  the  others. 

In  1630  Thomas  Hudson  settled  at  Lynn,  Massa- 
chusetts, on  land  near  the  ford  of  the  Saugus  River. 
His  discovery  of  bog-iron  ore  in  his  marsh  led  to  the 
establishment  of  the  first  iron  foundry  by  Joseph 
Jenks.  Charcoal  was  the  fuel  used,  and  the  first 
casting  done  in  America  was  an  iron  pot  made  in 

[369] 


'  EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

1642.  In  1652  Jenks  cast  the  dies  for  the  famous 
pine-tree  shillings.  In  1646  there  was  also  a  foun- 
dry at  Braintree,  Massachusetts,  where  pots,  mortars, 
stoves,  and  skillets  were  made. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  Pennsylvania  be- 
came the  center  of  the  iron  industry  and  furnaces 
were  also  established  in  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  and 
elsewhere.  Among  the  products  manufactured  in 
Pennsylvania  were  the  five-plate  and  six-plate  stoves 
which  were  built  into  the  jambs  of  fireplaces.  They 
had  no  connection  with  the  flue  and  were  open  on 
the  side  toward  the  fire.  Hot  coals  were  shoveled 
into  them,  and  the  heated  iron,  extending  into  the 
room,  radiated  a  fair  degree  of  warmth. 

The  side  and  end  plates  of  these  stoves  were  cast 
in  raised  designs,  and  it  is  these  quaintly  decorative 
stove-plates  that  are  of  chief  interest  to  the  collector. 
The  Metropolitan  and  Pennsylvania  Museums  own 
a  number  of  them,  and  Mr.  Henry  C.  Mercer  of 
Doylestown,  Pennsylvania,  has  made  a  particular 
study  of  them,  as  well  as  of  Moravian  tiles  and 
Pennsylvania-German  pottery.  Another  collector  of 
stove-plates  is  Mr.  Benjamin  F.  Owen  of  Reading, 
Pennsylvania. 

These  plates  are  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  and 
one-half  feet  square,  and  often  half  an  inch  thick  or 

[370] 


>N»0    SMP    Wli 


*»»* 


**** 

**** 


UN  if  *  mum 
*MK*  *o* 


«!'*    *|||(* 


• 

*NN* 


*M*    »M* 

•  ll*    *M* 


*H*    *  M  « 


(NPIN  W    *  IN  9 


*N*     *1X* 


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\n  American  hand- woven  coverlet  of  the  late  eighteenth  century. 

Museum  Collection. 


From  the  Metropolitar 


OTHER  CRAFTS  AND  CRAFTSMEN 

more.  The  tulip  was  a  common  design  motif,  and 
many  of  the  plates  bore  inscriptions  in  German. 
The  most  interesting  subjects  illustrate  scriptural  in- 
cidents, such  as  the  stories  of  Cain  and  Abel,  Adam 
and  Eve,  David  and  Goliath,  Joseph  and  Potiphar's 
wife,  the  Miracle  of  Cana,  the  flight  into  Egypt,  and 
Elijah  and  the  ravens. 

Among  the  known  makers  of  these  stove  plates 
were  Thomas  Rutter,  the  Durham  Furnace  in  Bucks 
County,  Daniel  Udree  at  Oley  in  Berks  County, 
John  Potts  at  the  Warwick  Furnace  in  Chester 
County,  and  Baron  Stiegel  at  Elizabeth  Furnace  in 
Lancaster  County.  They  date  from  1735  to  1790, 
but  the  best  examples  were  made  between  1740  and 
1760.  With  the  introduction  of  the  ten-plate  stove 
the  decorations  became  less  interesting.  Daniel 
Udree  is  said  to  have  burned  840  bushels  of  charcoal 
in  his  furnace  every  twenty-four  hours,  and  it  took 
twenty-two  cords  of  wood  to  make  that  much  char- 
coal. 

Naturally,  wood  began  to  be  less  plentiful  and 
more  expensive  in  the  region  of  Philadelphia,  and 
this  led  to  the  invention  of  the  Philadelphia  fireplace 
to  economize  fuel.  This  was  improved  by  Benja- 
min Franklin,  and  Franklin  stoves  began  to  be  made 
about  1745.  Franklin  had  made  a  study  of  fire* 

[373] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

places,  chimneys,  and  draughts,  among  his  many 
other  scientific  investigations,  and  his  own  account 
of  his  invention  is  interesting.  In  his  autobiography 
he  writes  as  follows : 

"Having,  in  1742,  invented  an  open  stove  for  the 
better  warming  of  rooms,  and  at  the  same  time  sav- 
ing fuel,  as  the  fresh  air  admitted  was  warmed  in 
entering,  I  made  a  present  of  the  model  to  Mr.  Rob- 
ert Grace,  one  of  my  early  friends,  who,  having 
an  iron-furnace,  found  the  casting  of  the  plates  for 
these  stoves  a  profitable  thing,  as  they  were  growing 
in  demand.  .  .  .  The  use  of  these  fireplaces  in  very 
many  houses,  both  here  in  Pennsylvania  and  the 
neighboring  states,  has  been,  and  is,  a  great  saving 
of  wood  to  the  inhabitants." 

The  Franklin  stoves  were  built  of  cast  iron,  to  be 
fitted  into  the  fireplace,  or  to  extend  out  into  the 
room,  with  a  flue  connection.  Some  were  very  sim- 
ple in  arrangement,  while  others  had  more  or  less 
elaborate  systems  of  draughts.  The  old  fireplaces 
were  not  always  smokeless,  and  the  new  stove  was 
an  improvement  in  that  respect. 

Sea  coal  was  advertised  in  Philadelphia  as  early 
as  1744,  and  Franklin  stoves  were  soon  made  with 
grates  as  well  as  with  flat  hearths  for  andirons. 

The  designs  were  often  good,  the  jambs  curving 

[374] 


OTHER  CRAFTS  AND  CRAFTSMEN 

gracefully  and  the  proportions  pleasing.  They  were 
decorated  with  embossed  patterns  in  the  iron  and 
with  brass  or  nickel  knobs  and  sometimes  rosettes 
and  rails.  They  were  made  with  and  without 
feet. 

It  is  not  impossible  to  find  old  Franklin  stoves 
occasionally  to-day,  though  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  be  deceived  by  the  modern  reproductions  which 
soon  get  to  looking  old  with  use.  The  ordinary 
types  are  worth  $15  or  $20. 

Among  the  other  interesting  products  of  the  old 
furnaces  were  decorative  firebacks  for  fireplaces, 
andirons,  door  knockers,  and  building  hardware. 
Old  architectural  wrought  iron,  such  as  is  to  be 
found  in  Charleston  and  elsewhere,  is  a  subject  for 
study  by  itself. 

THE    TEXTILE    ARTS 

We  have  been  dealing,  of  course,  with  the  work  of 
professional  craftsmen,  while  some  of  the  interesting 
art  objects  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centu- 
ries were  the  work  of  amateurs.  The  textile  arts 
especially — needlework  and  weaving — should  be 
classed  as  home  crafts. 

Lace,  tapestries,  silks,  the  finer  floor  coverings,  and 
other  textiles  were  largely  imported  until  well  into 

[375] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

the  nineteenth  century,  but  the  homespun  work  was 
not  always  lacking  in  artistic  interest.  As  early  as 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  were 
professional  weavers,  who,  like  the  itinerant  cob- 
blers, went  from  farmhouse  to  farmhouse,  carrying 
their  looms  with  them  and  doing  the  year's  stint  of 
work.  It  was  doubtless  from  these  weavers  that  the 
Colonial  housewives  learned  to  improve  the  char- 
acter of  their  own  weaving,  for  this  remained  for 
generations  part  of  women's  work. 

For  the  collector  there  is  perhaps  nothing  more 
interesting  in  this  field  than  the  hand-woven  cover- 
lets which  were  made  in  every  section  of  the  country 
from  New  Hampshire  to  Georgia.  The  art,  indeed, 
still  survives  in  the  Southern  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains. These  coverlets  were  quaintly  beautiful,  and 
as  they  were  often  carefully  preserved,  not  a  few  of 
them  are  still  in  existence.  Some  patterns  were  im- 
ported from  European  countries  by  the  early  immi- 
grants, and  many  were  common  to  all  parts  of  the 
Colonies.  They  were  often  named.  Miss  Hall,  in 
her  book  on  coverlets,  has  gathered  a  large  number 
of  these  names  and  designs.  The  colors  were  chiefly 
red  and  white  or  blue  and  white,  but  green,  pink, 
yellow,  and  saffron  were  also  used.  The  vegetable 

[376] 


A  fashionable  type  of  needlework.      "Washington  Memorial"  embroidery,  about 
1800.     Bolles  Collection. 


American  sampler,  one  of  the  less  elaborate  forms.     Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art. 


OTHER  CRAFTS  AND  CRAFTSMEN 

dyes  were  all  home-made — an  art  that  has  been  all 
but  forgotten  in  this  country. 

Needlework  was  always  considered  one  of  the  ac- 
complishments of  the  gentlewoman.  She  made 
"Turkey  work,"  hooked  and  braided  rugs,  samplers, 
embroidered  curtains  and  fire  screens,  etc.  Em- 
broidery, indeed,  became  one  of  the  most  widely 
practised  of  the  fine  arts. 

The  teaching  of  needlework  was  a  thriving  indus- 
try in  itself.  In  New  York  we  find  Martha  Gazley 
advertising  in  1 73 1  to  teach  needlework,  and  similar 
advertisements  were  common  after  1750.  In  1769 
Clementina  and  Jane  Ferguson  conducted  a  famous 
young  ladies'  finishing  school  in  which  needlework 
was  one  of  the  principal  subjects  taught.  In  Bos- 
ton Mrs.  Hiller  had  a  similar  school  in  Hanover 
Square  and  they  were  quite  common  during  the  '6o's. 

There  is,  I  think,  nothing  in  the  line  of  needle- 
work so  interesting  to  the  collector  as  samplers. 
They  are  not  uncommon,  though  they  vary  widely 
in  excellence  and  in  human  interest.  The  oldest 
ones  were  the  work  of  skilled  needlewomen;  sam- 
plers which  were  the  tasks  of  little  girls  belong  gen- 
erally to  some  date  after  1725. 

The  history  of  weaving,  printing,  and  the  other 

[379] 


EARLY  AMERICAN  CRAFTSMEN 

industrial  arts  in  America  are  all  deserving  of  atten- 
tion, but  we  have  covered,  I  think,  the  subjects  that 
are  of  the  greatest  present  interest  to  collectors. 
This  history,  indeed,  dull  enough  at  first  glance, 
soon  becomes  a  part  of  the  collector's  treasured  lore, 
and  the  collector  of  Americana  is  bound  to  become 
something  of  a  historian. 

It  is  my  hope  that  I  may  have  succeeded  through 
this  volume  in  turning  the  attention  of  some  few 
Americans  to  the  collecting  of  Americana,  and  I  shall 
be  still  further  gratified  if  the  recently  awakened 
popular  interest  in  this  field  may  cause  the  directors 
of  more  of  our  public  museums  to  follow  the  lead 
of  those  in  New  York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia 
and  take  steps  toward  the  acquisition  of  comprehen- 
sive collections  of  the  work  of  our  early  American 
craftsmen. 


[380] 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  books  and  pamphlets  which  the 
collector  of  Americana  will  find  of  the  greatest  value  in  a 
study  of  the  subjects  discussed  in  the  foregoing  pages: 

The  Colonial  Furniture  of  New  England,  by  Irving  Whitall 
Lyon. 

Colonial  Furniture  in  America,  by  Luke  Vincent  Lockwood. 

The  Furniture  of  Our  Forefathers,  by  Esther  Singleton. 

The  Lure  of  the  Antique,  by  Walter  A.  Dyer. 

Old  Plate,  by  John  Henry  Buck. 

The  Old  Silver  of  American  Churches,  by  E.  Alfred  Jones. 

American  Silver,  by  R.  T.  Haines  Halsey. 

Early  Silver  of  Connecticut  and  Its  Marks,  by  George  Mun- 
son  Curtis. 

The  Pottery  and  Porcelain  of  the  United  States,  by  Edwin 
Atlee  Barber. 

China  Collecting  in  America,  by  Alice  Morse  Earle. 

Tulip  Ware  of  the  Pennsylvania  Potters,  by  Edwin  Atlee 
Barber. 

Pewter  and  the  Amateur  Collector,  by  Edwards  J.  Gale. 

Old  Pewter,  Brass,  Copper,  and  Sheffield  Plate,  by  N.  Hud- 
son Moore. 

American  Glassware,  by  Edwin  Atlee  Barber. 

Stiegel  Glass,  by  Frederick  William  Hunter. 

The  Old  Clock  Book,  by  N.  Hudson  Moore. 

Simon  Willard  and  His  Clocks,  by  John  Ware  Willard. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

By-Paths  in  Collecting,  by  Virginia  Robie. 

A  Book  of  Hand- Woven  Coverlets,  by  Eliza  Calvert  Hall. 

The  Bells  of  Paul  and  Joseph  W.  Revere,  by  Arthur  H. 

Nichols. 

The  Life  of  Colonel  Paul  Revere,  by  E.  H.  Goss. 
The  True  Story  of  Paul  Revere,  by  Charles  Ferris  Gettemy. 

PAMPHLETS 

The  Metropolitan  Museum  Catalogue  of  New  York  and 

New  Jersey  Silver. 
History   of   the   American   Clock   Business,   by   Chauncey 

Jerome. 

American  Clock  Making,  by  Henry  Terry. 
History  of  Plymouth,  by  Francis  Atwater. 
Baron  Henry  William  Stiegel,  by  J.  H.  Sieling,  M.D. 
Henry  William  Stiegel,  by  A.  S.  Brendle,  Esq. 
The  Bulletin  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art. 


[382] 


INDEX 


INDEX 


American    China    Manufactory, 

290 
Architecture,    early    American, 

1 6  et  seq. 

Banjo  Clocks,  139,  148,  158 
Bannister-back  chairs,  331,  334 
Beds,  American,  332,  338 
Bells,  Revere,  204,  206  et  seq. 
Bennington  pottery,  284,  297,  298 

et  seq. 

Bentley,  William,  diary  of,  25 
Boardman,  Thomas  D.,  261 
Bookcase  desks,  335 
Book-plates  by  Nathaniel  Kurd, 

238 
Book-plates    by    Paul    Revere, 

213 
Bottles,  American  glass,  361,  362 

et  seq. 

Brasiers,  American,  268  et  seq. 
Brass  mountings,  63 
Bureaus,  337 
Burnap,  Daniel,   108 
Burt,  John,  238 

Cabinet-makers,  American,  43  et 

seq.,  320  et  seq. 
Cartlidge,  Charles,  294 
Carving,  Mclntire,  39 
Carving,  Phyfe,  62 
Chairmakers,  43    et  seq.,   75   et 

seq.,  320  et  seq. 
Chairs: 
American  Empire,  337 


Chairs    (Continued) : 

American  Windsor,  79  et  seq. 

bannister-back,    331,   334 

Chippendale  style,  330 

English  Windsor,  96 

"fancy,"    336 

Phyfe,  58  et  seq. 

Queen  Anne  style,  330 

Restoration  style,  325 

roundabout,  331 

slat-back,  326,  331,  342 

turned,  325,  331,  34! 

wainscot,  325 
Chests  of  drawers,  332 
Church  clocks,    117,   142 
Clockmakers,    104    et    seq.,    128, 

133  et  seq.,  157,  348  et  seq. 
Coffee  pots,  silver,  231 
Collections: 

Blaney,  67 

Bolles,  ii 

Clearwater,  12 

Concord  Antiquarian  Society, 

13 

Essex  Institute,  Salem,   13 

Halsey,  13,  43,  67,  338 

Hostetter,   187 

Hunter,    13,   187 

Jumel    Mansion,    New    York, 

13 

Kerfoot,  87 

Memorial  Hall,  Deerfield,  13 
Mercer,  370 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 

ii,  12,  67,  370 


[385] 


INDEX 


Collections    (Continued)): 
Mt.  Vernon,  13 
Owen,  373 
Pendleton,  n,  13 
Pennsylvania  Museum,  8,  278, 

370 

Philipse  Manor,  Yonkers,  13 
Pitkin,  8 

Rhode   Island   School   of   De- 
sign, 12 

Ropes  House,  Salem,  13 
Van    Cortlandt    House,    New 

York,  13 

Wadsworth  Athenaeum,  Hart- 
ford, 8 

Communion  services,  231,  256 
Cony,  John,  234 
Cook-Oliver  house,  Salem,  35 
Coppersmiths,  American,  268  et 

seq. 

Coverlets,  hand-woven,  376 
Cup-plates,  369 
Curtis,  Lemuel,  158 

Danforth,  Samuel,  261 
Desks,  332,  335 
Dressing-tables,  332 
Drinking-glasses,  183,  362 
Drinking  vessels,  silver,  228 
Dummer,  Jeremiah,  234 

Earthenware,  274,  280,  299 
Edwards,   John,   237 
Engravings  by  Nathaniel  Hurd, 

238^ 

Engravings  by  Paul  Revere,  210 
Erie  Canal  celebration,  52 
Exhibitions : 

Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts, 

6,  12,  214,  220 
Hudson-Fulton  Celebration,  6, 

44,  220  ^ 
Pan-American  Exposition,  315 


"Fancy"  chairs,  336 

"Feast  of  Roses,"  177 

Fenton,  Christopher  Weber,  299 

et   seq.,   306 

Figures,  Bennington,  309,  311 
Flint-enameled  ware,  311 
Frames,   mirror,   356 
Franklin  stove,  374 
Furniture  makers,  43  et  seq.,  320 

et  seq. 

Glassware,    American,    8,     162 

et  seq.,  180  et  seq.,  361 
Greatbach,  Daniel,  303  et  seq. 

Harland,  Thomas,  107 
Highboys,  332 
Hoadley,  Silas,  122 
Houses  in  Salem,  32  et  seq. 
Hull,  John,  233 

Hurd,     Benjamin,     Jacob,     and 
Nathaniel,  238 

Iron  furnaces,  369  et  seq. 

Jerome,  Chauncey,  123  et  seq. 
Jersey  City  Pottery,  289 

Looking-glasses,   356 
Lowboys,  332 

Mahogany,  use  of,  57,  62,  326, 

329,  330 

Mclntire,  Samuel,  16  et  seq. 
Mirrors,  356 

Needlework,  379 
Nichols  house,  Salem,  35 
Norton  family,  290  et  seq. 

Oak  Hill,  Peabody,  36 

Painted  furniture,  Pennsylvania 
German,  338 


[386] 


INDEX 


Parian  ware,  300,  303,  310,  312 
Patent  for  clocks,  no,  140 
Pewter,  manufacture  of,  252 
Pewter  utensils,  256 
Pewterers,     American,     259     et 

seq. 

Phippen,  Samuel,  70 
Phyfe,  Duncan,  45  et  seq. 
Pillar-and-scroll-top  clock,  114  ' 
Pine-tree  shillings,  234,  370 
Pitchers,  Bennington,  311 
Porcelain,  American,  8,  286,  290, 

303 

Porringers,  silver,  227 
Potters,   American,  273    et  seq., 

298  et  seq. 
Pottery,  American,  8,  273  et  seq., 

298  et  seq. 
Presentation  clock,  151 

Revere,  Paul,  191  et  seq. 
Rocking-chairs,   91,    343 
Rockingham  ware,  286,  293,  297, 

299,  300,  303,  309,  310 
Roundabout  chairs,  331 

Salem,  Mass.,  20  et  seq. 

Samplers,   379 

Sanderson,  Robert,  233 

Secretaries,  335 

Sgraffito  pottery,  277  et  seq. 

Sideboards,  58,  337 

Silversmiths,  American,  191  et 
seq.,  219  et  seq.,  232  et  seq. 

Silverware,  American,  12,  219  et 
seq. 

Silverware,  process  of  manu- 
facture, 220 

Silverware,  Revere,  214  et  seq. 

Slat-back  chairs,  326,  331,  342 


Slip-decorated    pottery,    8,    277 

et  seq. 

Sofas,  Phyfe,  61 
Spoons,  silver,  224 
Stiegel,  Baron,    162   et  seq. 
Stove-plates,  167,  370 

Taber,  Elnathan,  157 
Tables,  61,  331,  337 
Teapots,  silver,  231 
Terry,  Eli,  68  et  seq. 
Textile  arts,  375 
Thomas,  Seth,  118  et  seq. 
Tucker,  William  Ellis,  290 

United  States  Pottery,  300 

Values: 

American  glassware,  369 
American  pewter,  257 
American  silverware,  251 
Bennington  ware,  315  et  seq. 
clocks,  129,  158 
Phyfe  furniture,  68 
Revere  silver,  218 
Stiegel  glass,  187 
Windsor  chairs,  99  et  seq. 

Van  Dyke,  Peter,  245 

Vernon,  Samuel,  246 

Washington      eagle      furniture, 

338 

Washington  medallion,  36 
Washington  Square,  Salem,  36 
Weaving,  376 

Willard,  Aaron,  152  et  seq. 
Willard,  Benjamin,   134 
Willard,  Simon,  135  et  seq. 
Windsor  chairs,  79  et  seq. 
Winslow,  Edward,  237 
Winthrop,  bust  of  Gov.,  39 


[387] 


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